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A COTTON MANUAL 



MANUFACTURERS AND STUDENTS 



BY 

J. T. BROADBENT 

Instructor in Carding and Spinning, 
Bradford- Durfee Textile School, Fall River, Mass. 



1 90s 

I^ORD & Nagle Co. 

Boston, Mass. 



lUBKARY of CONGRESS I ^^ 

\ Two Cooles RyceivaJ 3 

JUL 2 rmi 




Copyright, 1905, 

by 

Lord & Nagle Company, 

Boston. 



7' 



INDEX TO QUESTIONS. 



Page 

1. What is cotton? ii 

2. Brief general description of a cotton fibre. 

Fig. I 14 

3. The chemical composition of cotton 20 

4. Principal cotton growing centres by quantity 22 

5. Principal cotton growing centres by quality.. 22 

6. Principal requirements for cotton cultivation. . 22 

7. State producing largest crop of American 

cotton, and leading markets in United 
States 23 

8. Five leading seaports from . which cotto'n is 

shipped 23 

9. Beginning of cotton cultivation in U. S 24 

10. Port of first shipment of American cotton ... 24 

11. States included in the cotton growing section 

of the United States 24 

12. World's most important crop 24 

13. Cotton imported into the U. S 25 

14. Preparing land for cotton cultivation 25 

15. Time for preparing land 26 

16. Is fertilizing always necessary? 27 

17. Selection of cotton seed 29 

18. Mechanical and hand planting 31 

19. The two principal periods in the life of a cot- 

ton plant 32 

20. Meaning of "Chopping-out" 33 

21. Time between planting and picking 33 

22. Picking season 34 

23. Best time to pick cotton 34 

24. A year's work on a cotton plantation 34 

25. Leaf and stalk in cotton 35 

26. Home of the cotton plant 35 

27. Principal cottons manufactured in the U. S. . . 35 

28. Name and grades of best cotton grows. (Sea 

Island.) ^6 

29. American cotton 37 

30. Long Stapled Upland cotton 38 

31. Gulf cotton 40 



COTTON MANUAL 

S2. Upland cotton and Texas cotton 41 

33. Grades of American cotton with their varia- 

tions in price 42 

34. Meaning of "Spot," "Futures," and "C. L F. 

& 6" as appHed to cotton buying 44 

35. Terms upon which "spot" cotton is sold 45 

36. "Contract in futures" 45 

37. Egypt's position as a cotton producing 

country 47 

38. Varieties of Egyptian cotton 48 

39. Grades of Egyptian cotton 49 

40. India's position as a cotton producing 

country 49 

41. India's cotton producmg territory 49 

42. Varieties of Indian cotton SO 

43. Grades of Indiaii cotton 51 

44. South American cotton 51 

45. Grades of Brazilian cotton 53 

46. Mexican cotton 54 

47. Chinese cotton 54 

48. Asiatic cotton general quality 55 

49. Selection of cotton 55 

50. Important cotton markets outside of U. S. . . 57 

51. Uses of cotton in addition to cloth ". . 58 

52. Is the fibre the only portion of the plant which 

can be us'ed for commercial purposes? ... 59 

53. Fibre and seed in "seed-cotton" 60 

54. Ginning and its object 60 

55. Ginning of American cotton 61 

56. General description of a saw gin 63 

57. Production of a saw gin 64 

58. Rivals of the saw gin 65 

59. The deterioration of American cotton 65 

60. Defects in cotton as received at the mills .... 67 

61. Method of packing prior to baling 68 

62. Weight and dimensions of American bales ... 68 

63. Comparison of American and foreign bales . . 68 
Chapter on Cotton Baling. 

Chapter on Cotton Mixing. 



PREFACE 



This work is dedicated to the students of 
the various textile schools of the United 
States, by whom it may be used as a text book 
covering a brief general study of the cotton 
fibre, together with as many of the essential 
points in connection with the cultivation and 
marketing of this important crop, as the aver- 
age student requires. 

It will also serve as a handy reference book 
for persons connected with, or interested in 
cotton manufacturing, as the arrangement in 
catechism form will assist in readily obtaining 
a direct answer to questions bearing upon any 
particular branch of the study; at the same 
time the entire volume forms a treatise on 
cotton from the seed to the mill. 

In the preparation of this work the author 
has received assistance from many works on 
cotton and cotton cultivation, some of which 
are referred to in the text; notably the U. S. 
Dept. of Agriculture, and Col. A. B. Shepper 
son of the N. Y. Cotton Exchange, to whom I 
take this opportunity of expressing my thanks 
and appreciation. I also wish to thank the 
Eagle Gin Co. of Bridgewater, Mass., and the 
Howard & Bullough Mch. Co. of Pawtucket, 
R. I., for machinerv illustrations. 

J. T. B. 

January. 1905. 



A COTTON MANUAL 

FOR 

Manufacturers and Students. 



Question i. What is Cotton? 

Answer. Cotton is the downy product of a 
plant which belongs to the family of Mallows, 
and is indigenous to almost all tropical and 
semi tropical climates. 

Owing to the fact that the cotton plant 
yields so readily to the varying conditions of 
soil and climate, there is at the present time a 
large variety of cottons, each having some 
peculiarity which is considered enough to 
place it under a distinct class, or species; the 
above, together with the tendency to hybrid- 
ize, make it almost impossible to keep track of 
every variety. An idea of such an undertaking- 
can be obtained from the fact that the U. S. 
Dept. of Agriculture in 1896 recorded about 
130 varieties. 

In the United States, India, Egypt, and the 
majority of cotton growing countries the culti- 
vation of cotton is usually treated as an annual 
plant, i .e., new seeds are sown every year. 

In South America the plant is permitted to . 
stand for. about 5 or 7 years, or so long as it 
will give a satisfactory return of fibre ; this is 
called a perennial plant. Under very favorable 
conditions this species will produce two crops 
in one vear. 



12 COTTON MANUAL 

The botanical species of cotton vary con- 
siderably in number, according to different 
botanists ; but the following represents the 
four principal species. 

Gossypium Barbadense. 
Gossypium Herbaceum. 
Gossypium Hirsutum. 
Gossypium Arboreum or Peruvianum. 

The Barbadense, generally speaking, in- 
cludes mostly the long stapled cottons such as 
Sea Island (either the American or Peruvian 
varieties), and Egyptian. 

This species is supposed to have obtained its 
name from the Barbadoes ; although it may be 
cultivated in the Bahamas, Lesser Antilles or 
any region near the sea, between 12 and 26 
degrees N. Lat., as its principal requisite is a 
warm, humid atmosphere. 

' The plant grows to a height of from 4 to 8 
feet, and usually the seeds are black and 
smooth ; the latter referring particularly to the 
downy covering which is present to some ex- 
tent on all other varieties of seed. 

The Gossypium Herbaceum species and the 
G. Hirsutum, refer to the class of cotton rep- 
resented by American Uplands, and undoubt- 
edly indicate the "grey seed" and "green seed" 
varieties respectively. 

The plant attains a height of 6 feet in some 
cases, although 4 feet would be nearer the 
average. In each case the seeds are covered 
with a short firmly adhering fibre, in addition 
to the regular fibres. 

The product of the Herbaceum species is 
usually shorter than that of the Hirsutum 



COTTON MANUAL 13 

species and is supposed to represent the bulk 
of Indian, Chinese, African, and Asiatic cot- 
tons, while the Hirsutum refers more espe- 
cially to the American cottons. 

The Gossypium Arboreum is usually spoken 
of as the "tree cotton" and is found in Asia, 
Central and South America, and India. 

The plant may reach a height of 15 or 20 
feet, and the seeds may be classed amongst 
the "green" variety, being covered with a 
greenish down, beneath the usual fibre. 

This species is usually treated as a perennial 
plant, i. e., the seeds are not sown every year, 
but the plant is allowed to stand and produce 
fibre for 5 to 7 years in succession. It requires 
little cultivation, and in good seasons will 
yield two crops of fibre. 

The separation of the fibres from the seeds 
is more difficult in the "green" and "grey" 
seeded varieties than in the "black" seeded 
varieties, and the operation is usually per- 
formed on different machines. 

A cotton plant is composed of roots, stems, 
leaves, bolls, seeds, and lint or fibre, in about 
the following proportions ; although soil and 
location, with care in cultivating, may increase 
the per cent, of fibre. An approximate per 
cent, for the roots is about 8 of the entire 
weight of the plant; stems' or stalk may be 
23 per cent. ; leaves about 20 per cent. ; bolls 
14 per cent. ; seed 23 per cent., and lint or fibre 
II per cent.; the water being omitted in the 
above, although it may when taken into con- 
sideration, equal about 10 per cent, of the total 
weight of the plant. 



14 



COTTON MANUAL 



2. Give a general description of a cotton 
fibre. 

When viewed under the microscope, a cot- 
ton fibre appears as a flattened twisted tube, 
thicker at the edges than in the centre, 
and being of equal diameter for about 3/4 of 
its length ; after which it gradually tapers for 
the remainder of its length, at the same time 
becoming more cylindrical. 

This peculiarity of the cotton fibre to twist 
on its axis is the principal cause of cotton 
fibres being so admirably adapted to spinning, 
as it permits the fibres to interlock with each 
other, in addition to entwining about each 
other through the introduction of artificial 
twist. 

Unripe fibres have a very small amount of 
natural twist, and consequently will not pro- 
duce as strong a thread. See Fig. i. 




^ i<m<^ 



COTTON FIBRES. 



The fibre is made up of four parts, viz : 
I, The outer membrane forming the skin 
of the fibre, which is covered by an oily de- 
posit known as cotton wax. 



COTTON MANUAL 15 

2. Cellulose which forms the body of the 
fibre. 

3. A central spiral deposit of a little harder 
nature than the rest of the fibre. 

4. A secreted matter in the centre, some- 
what similar to the pith of a quill. 

It is claimed that a fibre of cotton during 
the process of growth is a true cylindrical 
tube, with an open space in the centre running 
almost its entire length. This space contains 
a fluid from which the fibre is constructed; it 
flowing through this tube in much the same 
manner and for the same purpose as does the 
blood in the arteries of a human body. As 
soon as this cylindrical tube has reached the 
age of maturity the supply of this circulating 
fluid is entirely cut off, and is no doubt as in 
the case of a dying leaf on a tree, drawn back 
into the seed from which the growing fibre has 
got its nourishment. This cylindrical tube, 
having reached the age of maturity, and the 
nourishing fluid having been drawn back into 
the seed, collapses and becomes, in the place 
of a perfectly cylindrical tube, a flattened one, 
as is shown by the microscope. See Fig. i. 
In cotton we find this tube-like formation so 
thin and delicate that when the process of 
ripening has taken place the tube collapses 
into a thin ribbon, which, in turn, curls up and 
twists itself into a spiral form. This is a fea- 
ture that is much desired by manufacturers. 
When the formation has a little more sub- 
stance to back up the structure the hollow 
tube retains more of an elliptical form in con- 
struction, or else it curves together in two 



16 COTTON MANUAL 

Opposite sides and forms a cross section that 
looks almost like a figure eight (8). 

Covering the cotton fibre is a sort of varnish 
or oleaginous deposit, technically known as 
cotton wax. This is said by Monie to amount 
to about 2 per cent, by weight of the fibre, and 
must be removed before the fibre is dyed, 
otherwise the coloring will Tdc poorly done. 
The presence of this substance on the fibre is 
readily shown by the dif^culty with which 
ordinary cotton absorbs moisture. Absorbent 
cotton is cotton that has been treated in such 
a way that all the cotton wax is removed. 
AVhen cotton fibre is manufactured into yarn, 
the process requires a certain amount of heat 
in order to drive away the viscosity of this 
substance which has a tendency towards lick- 
ing the rollers. The hollowness or tube-like 
construction and the twist of fibres, with the 
serrated or corrugated edges depends upon the 
gradual development of the fibre. According 
to latest investigations by some botanists, the 
cotton fibre of a good staple consists of from 
300 to 800 twists in its length, and in an ordi- 
nary variety, the number ranges to over 150. 

The more the fibre has of the natural twist, 
the greater its capacity to hold the neighbor- 
ing fibre firmly ; and this tendency is its chief 
recommendation, if we utilize the fibre for 
turning into yarn. 

Microscopic tests reveal further that these 
twists in the fibre are not always of the same 
length, but that some are long and some short, 
while some portion of the fibre is entirely 
without twist. One special feature which has 



COTTON MANUAL 17 

been noticed is, that in some of the fibres, the 
twist is along one side as well as along the 
other, and twists like these, variable in their 
lengths and direction, are all useful in making 
the fibre commercially valuable. The absence 
of serrated or corrugated edges in a fibre is due 
to solidity. 

A delicate, smooth and even fibre, such as 
the cotton fibre, will be, as a rule, an elastic 
one also. If the gummy substance, which 
forms the inner coating of the walls of the 
fibre, is given to it gradually through the con- 
stant circulation of that fluid, it will steadily 
increase the thickness of the walls and give 
the fibre its perfect maturity. If this gummy 
substance is allowed to go into the fibre and 
give the walls of the fibre a coating, of a con- 
densed nature, the fibre is sure to lose its 
tendency towards taking more twist, and re- 
taining moisture, known as water of hydra- 
tion. 

These two drawbacks tend, moreover, to 
affect adversely the fibre so far as the main- 
taining of its elasticity is concerned. 

As to the individual strength of cotton fibre, 
this depends upon its diameter, and in this 
respect Indian cotton stands first. Here we 
must remember, that this strength is of little 
use when yarn is to be made out of these 
fibres. Strength of yarn does not depend upon 
the individual strength of cotton fibre, but 
upon the number of twists and fineness in 
diameter of each individual fibre, as well as 
upon the length of the fibre. A fibre which is 
thick in diameter, is always shorter in length 



18 COTTON MANUAL 

than a thinner fibre, and therefore not capable 
of being bound into as strong a yarn as the 
longer but weaker fibre. Again the thicker 
fibre being greater in diameter, the yarn made 
of such fibres shows a smaller number of fibres 
in its cross section; it is therefore weaker in 
strength than yarn which is composed of 
smaller diameter fibres which lie closer to one 
another and give more strength. The follow- 
ing table shows how fibres of larger diameter 
are stronger in their individual strength but 
wanting in length or staple : — 

Classes of Cotton. Mean length Mean diameter Mean strength of 
of the fibre. of the fibre. the fibre in grs. 

Sea Island 1.7 inches 

Egyptian 1.4 inches 

American Gulf i.i inches 

Indian best quality • .9 inches 

The above is the average of several tests 
made from the same sort of cotton. As re- 
gards the strength, the weight was suspended 
at different distances, and the variation found 
was from 18 to 300 grains. The fibre has 
thus been observed to be weaker at the end 
farthest from the seed and gradually stronger 
towards the seed. 

If a very immature boll be cut transversely, 
the cut section will show that it is divided by 
longitudinal walls into three or more divi- 
sions ; and the seed will be shown attached to 
the inner part of each division. The seeds 
retain this attachment until they have nearly 
reached their mature size, and the growth of 
lint has begun on them; when their attach- 
ments begin to be absorbed and by the in- 



I/I570" 


100 


I/I526" 


130 


I/I3I0'' 


140 


I/II85" 


150 



COTTON MANUAL 19 

Creased growth of the lint the seeds are forced 
to the centre of the cavity. The development 
of the fibre commences at the end of the seed 
farthest from its attachment, and gradually 
spreads over the seed as the process of growth 
continues. The first appearance of the cotton 
fibre occurs a considerable time before the 
seed has attained its full growth", and com- 
mences by the development of cells from the 
surface of the seed. These cells seem to have 
their origin in the second layer of cellular tis- 
sue, and force themselves through the epi- 
dermal layer, which seems to be gradually 
absorbed. The cells which originate the fibre 
are characterized by the thickness of their cell 
walls when compared with their diameter. The 
method of growth, according to Bowman, is 
the successive linear development of cells, the 
walls of which are absorbed at the point of 
contact until an elongated cell is produced, 
which constitutes the cotton fibre. The con- 
tinued growth of this mass of fibre assists in 
bursting open the pod when the period of ma- 
turity is reached. 

W. I. Hannan says in his Textile Fibres of 
Commerce, "there is no fracture or bursting of 
the fruit by the pressure of the fibres from the 
inside. The opening of the capsule does not 
depend upon the pressure within, but on the 
drying up of the coherent membrane sutures 
or valves of the capsules." 

The length of the fibre varies considerably 
on different parts of the seed, being longest on 
the rounded end of the seed and shortest at the 
pointed end of the seed. 



20 COTTON MANUAL 

3. What is the chemical composition of 
cotton? 

According to the experiments made by the 
Tennessee Experiment Station the following 
were found to be the approximate component 
parts of cotton. 

Water 6.74% . Cellulose 83.71% 

Ash 1.65% Nitrogen . 5.79% 

Protein i- 50% Fat 0.61 % 

G. Von Georgievics in his recently pub- 
lished work on Chemical Technology of Tex- 
tile Fibres, gives the following: 

Cellulose 87 to 91 % 

Water 7 to Z% 

Wax and Fat 4 to 5% 

Protoplasmal residue 5 to 7% 

Ash 12% 

Coloring matter small % 

The following particulars were obtained in 
a recent analysis by Messrs. Davis, Dreyfus 
and Holland : 

Carbonate of Potassium 33.22% Soluble in water. 

Chloride of Potassium 10.22% Soluble in water. 

Sulphate of Potassium 13.02% Soluble in water. 

Carbonate of Sodium (Soda 

Ash) 3-35% Soluble in water. 

Phosphate of Magnesium. , . 8.73% Not soluble in water. 

Carbonate of Magnesium-. • 7.81% Not soluble in water. 
Carbonate of Calcium, or 

lime 20.26% Not soluble in water. 

Peroxide of Iron, or Ferric 

Oxide ; 3.4% Not soluble in water. 

In Dr. Royle's work on the Culture of Cot- 
ton in India, two analysis of ash obtained by 
the combustion and subsequent incineration 
of Orleans cotton fibre and seed, made in 1843 



COTTON MANUAL 21 

are interesting. The analysis of the ash ob- 
tained by burning the fibre is : 

Parts 

Carbonate of Potash 44.29 

Phosphate of Lime 25.34 

Carbonate of Lime 8.97 

Carbonate of Magnesia 6.75 

Silica 4.12 

Sulphate of Potash ., 2.90 

Alumina i .40 

Chloride of Potassium ^ 

Chloride of Magnesium | 

Sulphate of Lime ^and loss . — . . 6.23 

Phosphate of Potash | 

Oxide of Iron (a trace) J 

100.00 

There is a well-known analysis of the ash 
produced when Sea Island cotton is carefully 
burned and the residuum incinerated, which 
was made by Dr. Ure. The composition of 
the ash was as follows : 

Matters Soluble in Water. 

Carbonate of Potash 44.8 

Muriate of Potash 9.9 

Sulphate of Potash 9.3 

Matters Insoluble in Water. 

Phosphate of Lime 9.0 

Carbonate of Lime , ; , , 10.6 

Phosphate of Magnesia , 8.4 

Peroxide of iron 3.0 

Alumina, water, and loss • • • 5.0 



100.00 

Analysis will show in some of the purer va- 
rieties of cotton that the cellulose may reach 
87 per cent., while the ash will vary from 
about I 1/4 per cent, in the finer varieties, to 
5 or 6 per cent, in the coarser varieties, or 
short stapled cottons. 



22 COTTON MANUAL 

Again the water may vary from 6 to 8 per 
cent., and this natural moisture is one of the 
essential features which gives cotton such ex- 
cellent spinning properties so far as its plia- 
bility is concerned. 

4- Name the principal centres which con- 
tribute to the world's cotton crop. 

The following countries represent the chief 
contributors, in order of quantity produced : 
United States, India, China, Egypt, Asia, South 
America, Africa and Turkey. 

5. Place the centres named in question 4 
in order for quality of cotton produced. 

United States produces Sea Island. 

Egypt produces Egyptian. 

South America produces Peruvian and Bra- 
zilian. 

United States produces American. 

Chinese Empire produces Chinese. 

India produces Indian. 

The cotton grown in Asia, Africa and Tur- 
key is a little better than the Indian varieties. 

6. What are the principal requirements for 
successful cultivation of cotton? 

Cotton may be successfully cultivated in 
countries and states, having tropical or semi- 
tropical climate, with about 8 months entirely 
free from frost. The belt may be represented 
between 37 degrees North and South latitudes. 

The atmosphere must be warm and moist, 
while the soil must contain lime and potash ; 
and although these properties may not be pres- 



COTTON MANUAL 23 

ent naturally, they are now introduced artifi- 
cially in the form of fertilizers. 

In the United States cotton is cultivated in 
practically three classes of soil : 

1st. The red soils of Georgia, North and 
South Carolina, and some portions of Ala- 
bama, Mississippi, and Texas. 

2d. The rich black loam of Alabama, Mis- 
sissippi and Texas. 

3d. The alluvial soil of the Valleys of the 
Santee, Alabama, Tombigbee, Pearl, Missis- 
sippi, and Red Rivers. 

7. What State produces the largest cotton 
crop in the United States ; also give the names 
of several cotton markets having sales of over 
100,000 bales "Spot Cotton"? 

Texas usually places the first new bale of 
cotton on the market and also produces the 
largest crop. 

The cotton markets in the above class in or- 
der of importance are: 

New Orleans, La. 
Houston, Texas. 
Memphis, Tenn. 
Little Rock, Ark. 
Savannah, Ga. 
Augusta, Ga. 
Montgomery, Ala. 
New York, N. Y. 
Galveston, Texas. 



24 COTTON MANUAL 

8. Give five of the leading seaports in 
United States from which cotton is shipped. 

The five leading ports are : 
New Orleans, La. 
Galveston, Texas. 
Savannah, Georgia. 
New York, N. Y. 
Charleston, S. C. 

9. When did cotton cultivation commence 
in the United States? 

The cultivation of cotton as a commercial 
fibre, began in Georgia, about the i6th cen- 
tury. , Georgia was then a small Spanish 
colony between Florida and South Carolina. 
In 1621 cotton sold in the colony of Virginia 
at 8d. (16 cents) per pound. 

10. From what port was the first ship- 
ment of American cotton made? 

The first shipment was from Savannah ; 
exact time questionable. In 1748, seven bags 
of cotton were exported from Charleston, S. C. 

11. Name the states included in the cotton 
growing section of the United States. 

North and South Carolina, Georgia, Texas, 
Florida, Virginia, Alabama, Louisiana, Missis- 
sippi, 'Arkansas, Tennessee, Missouri, and 
Kentucky. 

12. What country produces the most im- 
portant cotton crop? Why is it the most 
important? 

The cotton crop of the United States. The 
above is the most important, from the fact 
that it practically controls the price of the 



COTTON MANUAL 25 

entire market; again, it is the largest crog in 
the world, and its adaptability for general do- 
mestic use places it before other cottons for 
the manufacture of such goods as are most 
commonly used. 

13. Is there any cotton imported into the 
United States, if so of what variety is it gener- 
ally? 

Egyptian cotton is imported into the States, 
and is used for fine cotton goods, hosiery, and 
other special purposes. 

Rough Peruvian is also imported, but not 
in such large quantities ; in fact on the author- 
ity of Mr. A. B. Shepperson "not a single bale" 
is used except to mix with some other fibre; 
principally wool. 

14. What is meant by preparing the land 
for cotton cultivation? 

The work of preparing the land includes the 
following : 

ist. "Breaking up," i. e., the breaking up of 
the old stalks which are remaining from the 
last crop, and turning them under by means of 
a plow, so that they may act as fertilizer by 
decaying before time for sowing the next crop. 
This may commence at any time from January 
to March, according to the State, and a general 
statement may be given only; viz.: breaking 
up commences as early as convenient after the 
crop has been picked. It is customary in 
some plantations to allow the cattle to eat off 
the leaves or smaller stalks from the plant be- 
fore "breaking up ;" again, if the stalks are too 
large for satisfactory treatment as above, they 



.26 COTTON MANUAL 

are usually burned. (It may be well to men- 
tion incidentally at this point that bagging is 
sometimes made from the stalks, while the 
roots furnish an extract used as a medicine.) 

2d. After "breaking up" the fertilizer can 
be applied, and the soil harrowed; this opera- 
tion depending upon the kind of fertilizer 
used and the method of applying it. 

3d. "Bedding up" or laying oflf the land into 
beds; these varying from 2 1/2 to 6 feet be- 
tween each bed, the distance depending upon 
the particular kind of cotton to be cultivated; 
it is customary for fertilizer in the shape of a 
powder to be applied to the land at this point, 
by plowing a furrow up the centre of each bed 
and depositing the fertilizer into it. 

15. When does the work of preparing the 
land commence? 

When we consider the difference in lati- 
tude between the State of Texas and Vir- 
ginia, together with the different classes of 
soil, etc., it will be seen tha.t the above ques- 
tion has a great range ; for instance, in Texas 
and Florida preparation is commenced in Jan- 
uary; while in Georgia, Mississippi, Alabama, 
Louisiana, and Arkansas it commences in 
February; and in the more northern States 
commences as late as March. It is, however, 
the object of farmers to begin as early as pos- 
sible after the previous crop is disposed of at 
the gin. 

The following table is given by A. B. Shep- 
person of the New York Cotton Exchange: 



COTTON MANUAL 



27 



States. 


Usual 
Date to 
begin 
preparing 
Land. 


Usual 

Date to 

begin 

planting. 


Usual 

Date to 

finish 

planting. 


Usual Date to 
picking. 


Usual 
Date to 

finish 
picking. 


N. Carolina 


Feb. 25 


April IS 


May 10 


Sept. I 


Dec. 10 


S. Carolina 


Mar. s 


April IS 


May 7 


Aug. is-Sept. I 


Dec. I 


Georgia.... 


Feb. I 


April 10 


May I 


Aug. 1^ to 20 


Dec.! 


Florida .... 


Jan. 20 
Feb. I 


April I 


May I 


Aug. 10 


Dec. t 


Alabama... 


Aprils 


May 10 


Aug. ID to 20 


Dec. IS 


Mississippi 


Feb. 1 


April s 


May 10 


Aug. 10 to 20 


Dec. IS 


I.ouisiana . 


Feb. I 


April . 


May 10 


Aug. I to IS 


Dec. IS 


Texas* 


^Tb.'4 


Mar. IS 


May 10 


Au|. I. 


Dec. 20 


Arkansas.. 


April IS 


May IS 


Aug. IS to 20 


Jan. IS 


Tennessee . 


Mar. I 


April IS 


May IS 


Sept. I to 10 


Jan. IS 



*In a portion of Texas north of latitude 30.S0', the dates for pre- 
paring land, planting, and picking, are about four weeks later than the 
dates given aoove. 



16. What is meant by fertilizing? Is it 
always necessary on all lands? 

Fertilizing is the method by which land can 
be artificially assisted to produce better re- 
sults than it would if left in its natural state. 

The best fertilizer is that which contains the 
most food for the plants under cultivation. 
There are several varieties used in cotton cult- 
ure, some of which are entirely chemical ; oth- 
ers are made from the waste obtained at the 
ginnery or cotton seed oil mills, or by a mix- 
ture of crushed bones and stable manure, or 
general refuse from the large meat dressing 
houses throughout the country. The amount 
of fertilization, depends upon the natural qual- 
ities of the soil; although possibly all lands 
receive some. 

Dr. Ure is of the opinion that manure most 
suitable for imparting vigor to cotton fibre 



28 COTTON MANUAL 

should contain nutrosaline matter with alka- 
line, calcareous and magnesium bases. An ex- 
pert holds that if farmers were to remove only 
the lint from the cotton plant and leave the 
whole plant with stems, leaves, seeds, etc., to 
rot in the field, the permanent loss to the soil 
would be nothing but oil, which contains very 
little of manuring property. Manures pre- 
pared from vegetables, stable refuse, ashes, 
salts, and from fish, both in the dry and wet 
state are largely used, and the properties of 
wood ashes introduced recently by Western 
scientists is finding favor on account of its con- 
taining 4 to 6 per cent, or more of potash, as 
well as its property for protecting plants from 
insects. Fertilizer works are generally at- 
tached to cotton seed oil mills, where cotton 
seed meal, together with phosphate rock, horn 
and hoof waste, dried blood, bone meal, etc., 
are judiciously mixed in their manufacture. 
There are many types of fertilizers in the 
market suitable for differences of soil and cli- 
mate, as for various sorts of cultivated land. 
By the use of special fertilizers, the crop of a 
field can be hastened or put off at will, and any 
modification forced and obtained. The state 
of the land, the quality of the seed, atmos- 
pheric changes, and some other points are, of 
course, taken into consideration before any 
particular kind of fertilizer is used. Generally 
the quantity required of this manure is from 
half a ton to one ton per acre. Analysis of the 
cotton fibre as well as of different soils have 
assisted greatly in bringing these various kinds 
of fertilizers to such a point of perfection and 



COTTON MANUAL 29 

usefulness that one can, as it were, mould the 
cotton plant in any way he pleases. In short, 
the fertilizer is a substance which gives vitality 
to any one or more components of either the 
cotton plant or the soil, and it is, therefore, one 
of the most important aids to the growing of 
cotton plants. 

A mild climate is favorable to cotton crops. 
Extremes of either cold or heat, heavy rains 
continued for a long time, or very scanty 
showers, are all detrimental to its growth ; the 
weather again, should neither be too dry nor 
too moist; neither heavy floods nor droughts, 
nor a sudden change in temperature leading to 
variation in the amount of moisture is desir- 
able. Especially during the period the young 
plant is growing, mild and moderate climatic 
influences are needed. In short, uniform heat 
and humidity are the two essentials required 
for a good cotton crop of fine and good tex- 
ture, and if any substance deficient in the soil 
for promoting good fibre is supplied in the 
shape of fertilizers and manures, there is every 
probability that the much prized fineness in 
diameter, the smoothness and the evenness of 
the fibres can all be obtained in a great meas- 
ure. 

17. Need there be any precaution in select- 
ing cotton seed; if so, why? 

The above question if answered in de- 
tail would cover many points extending into 
the hybrid species. A general statement may 
be given, covering the general cultivation of 
any one particular variety as an answer. For 



30 COTTON MANUAL 

instance some farmers reserve the seed from 
the first picking, to use for their next year's 
crop. 

The following- is a reprint from the U. S. 
Department of Agriculture on this subject: 

The Selection of Seed. 

It is a well known fact that races of cotton 
become mixed and impure, unless special care 
is taken to prevent crossing with other sorts. 
If, therefore, fields of long-staple Upland cot- 
ton are growing in the vicinity of fields of 
ordinary short-staple Upland cotton, the seed 
for planting should be taken at some distance 
from any short-staple plants. It is desirable to 
locate the seed field ofif by itself, half a mile or 
more from any other cotton. 'Besides precau- 
tions to keep the seed pure, it is also very de- 
sirable that some careful method of seed selec- 
tion be regularly followed. It is desirable to 
keep the variety up to its full productiveness 
and better adapt it to local conditions, and this 
may be accomplished by simple and inexpen- 
sive methods of seed selection. The following 
is a simple method, and one which is easy of 
application : 

Choose one or more careful pickers that re- 
main on the plantation continuously from year 
to year, and train them to recognize the best 
plants ; that is, those most productive, earliest 
in maturing, and having the largest, best- 
formed and most numerous bolls. It is also 
advisable, where time permits, to have these 



COTTON MANUAL 31 

special pickers learn to pull the lint from the 
seed cotton and test it as to length, to see 
that this quality is maintained up to the 
maximum. Each year, before the first and 
second general pickings, have these skilled 
pickers go over the field and pick the cotton 
from the best plants only. These pickers 
should of course be paid by the day, and not 
according to the quantity picked. Sufficient 
seed cotton should be thus carefully picked to 
furnish, when ginned, the amount of seed nec- 
essary for planting the next year. To avoid 
mixing, preserve such seed separately, and gin 
it on a carefully cleaned gin. 

There is some difference of opinion as to the 
best cotton to pick for seed. Most planters 
claim that it is not best to take the cotton 
either from the first bolls that open, as these 
are liable to be small and imperfectly formed, 
or from those that open late in the season. 
Probably the first and second pickings furnish 
the most desirable seed, if care is used not to 
pick from any of the small or poorly formed 
bolls. Owing to the danger of picking the cot- 
ton from small and imperfectly formed bolls, 
it is frequently recommended that the seed be 
saved from the second and third pickings, 
where four pickings are made. 

1 8. What are the advantages claimed for 
mechanical cotton planting, over hand plant- 
ing? 

I St. Quicker than hand planting. 
2d. More economical on seed. 



32 COTTON MANUAL 

3d. Gives better results, by planting more 
evenly. 

The "cotton planter" is in general appear- 
ance similar to an ordinary wheel-barrow with 
a tube in the bottom for the seeds to fall 
through, while an arrangement for inter- 
mittent feeding is operated by a crank from 
the wheel. It also carries a tool for opening 
the soil, and also for covering the seeds with 
a thin layer of soil after they have been depos- 
ited into the bed. 

ig. There are two periods in the life of a 
cotton plant. What are they, and under what 
conditions does each produce the best results? 

The first period in the life of the plant is 
that in which the stalk and plant generally are 
nourished ; and covers about two months, or 
say from seed to flower which extends a little 
over that time ; during this period the climate 
must be warm with a moist atmosphere, while 
the general cultivation of the plant must also 
be attended to, and cleared of such foreign 
growth as would tend to rob the plant of its 
nourishment. 

The second period is known as the fruiting 
period and during this time more attention 
must be given to producing lint and seed. 
This period extends from flower to picking 
season, and depends principally UDon the rip- 
ening effect of the sun, as all cultivation 
ceases and the ground is allowed to dry, in or- 
4er to check further growth of stalk. 



COTTON MANUAL 33 

20. What is meant by "chopping out" and 
at what period in the Hfe of the plant or crop 
does it take place? 

"Chopping out" is the term used in connec- 
tion with the operation of cutting away the in- 
ferior or weak plants, and permitttng the more 
promising ones to remain. This is done when 
the plants are young (usually after about four- 
teen days growth), and according to location 
may be performed in April or May. 

The distance between the plants after "chop- 
ping out" depends upon the nature of the plant 
and character of the soil ; for instance two or 
three feet may be left between plants which at- 
tain a height of from six to 10 feet, while on 
smaller varieties a distance of from eight to 
fifteen inches is left. 

On fairly good soil in the Carolinas the dis- 
tance is from eighteen to twenty-four inches 
usually. 

21. What length of time expires between 
the seeds being sown, and the cotton being 
ready to pick? 

The length of time between the sowing of 
the seed, and the appearance of the plant 
above the ground may vary from 4 days to 2 
weeks, according to the conditions of the 
weather. 

Another 40 days is taken before the appear- 
ance of the bud, and from 3 to 4 weeks from 
bud to flower. The flower falls. on the third 
day, leaving a tiny boll which requires an- 



34 COTTON MANUAL 

other 7 or 8 weeks to develop and burst; the 
whole covering a period of about 41/2 months. 

22. What months constitute the picking 
season in the United States? 

The first bale of the new crop generally 
comes from Texas, and in this State they may 
commence picking in July. 

In other states August is usually considered 
early enough to give as the commencement of 
the picking season, which extends through 
September, October, November and into De- 
cember; according to location and conditions 
under which it has been grown. 

23. Why is it that cotton is seldom picked 
early in the morning and never in the rain? 

The reason for the above is, if cotton is 
picked while wet with either dew or rain, it 
will after being stored a short time become 
mildewed or rot. 

24. Describe briefly a year's work on a cot- 
ton plantation. 

January, breaking up. 

February, bedding up and broadcast fertil- 
izing. 

March, bedding up and fertilizing in drills. 

April, sowing and chopping out. 

May, chopping out and general cultivation. 

June, during this month the farmers are 
kept busy in general cultivation, such as keep- 
ing the soil moist and broken up. 

July, this month the crop is said to be ''laid 
by" and is the period for maturing the fibre. 



COTTON MANUAL 35 

August, September, October, November and 
December, picking. 

25. To what would you attribute an exces- 
sive amount of broken leaf and stalk mixed 
amongst the cotton? 

The above may be attributed to carelessness 
during picking, and may be done by the pick- 
ers grasping the leaf and crushing it into 
small particles while taking the cotton from 
the pod; or again, it may be by dropping a 
large amount of cotton on the ground and 
gathering same in a careless manner. A large 
per cent, of leaf, etc., could be thus mixed 
with the fibres. 

26. What country is supposed to be the 
home of cotton plant? 

When and where cotton was first cultivated 
seems to vary considerable with' different 
writers of the History of Cotton. There is, 
however, one country which seems to have the 
claim in this direction ; viz., India. 

It is said that this country produced woven 
fabrics 4,000 years ago, this being based upon 
references from Hindoo religious works, which 
refer to "threads in the loom," and other such 
indications to bear out the above. 

27. Give a list of the principal cottons 
manufactured in the United States. 

The following list of cottons and their 
adaptability for different counts of yarn are 



36 COTTON MANUAL 

given as representing the principal varieties 
used in the United States. 

rrvftr>r. Length Counts Counts 

"^ • in inches. Warp. Filling. 

Selected Sea Island i^ to 2,^ 200 300 

Commercial or Ordinary ) 

Sea Island, and Florida > i^ to 2 150 250 

Sea Island ) 

Georgia Sea Island 1% to 1% 120 200 

Egyptian ij^ to i)^ 70 12c 

AUenseed ii^ to i)^ 70 120 

Peelers i^ to i>^ 60 8c 

Gulf Cotton or Orleans ) 1 ^ 1 . -- 

and Benders } ^A to i^ 4o 60 

Uplands and Memphis.-, i inch 30 40 

Texas % to i inch 25 35 

Rough Peruvian is also used in the United States (see 
question 44). 

28. What is the name and grades of the 
best cotton and where is it grown? 

It is generally acknowledged that the Sea 
Island cotton (grown on the islands adjacent 
to the coasts of Florida, Georgia, and the Caro- 
Hnas, and also to some extent on the main- 
land) is the best cotton grown. 

It has a fibre which is long, fine, silky, and 
imiform in diameter ; the latter being about 
1/1560 part of an inch, and the length ranging 
from I 3/8 to 2 1/4 inches. 

It may be spun into the finest yarns up to 
300's or more. 

P. S. : — 300's equals 300 hanks in one 
pound ; therefore as one hank is 840 yards, 
there would be 840 x 300, or 252,000 yards in 
one pound. 



COTTOt^J MANUAL 37 

The grades of Sea Island cotton are as fol- 
lows, beginning with the best : 

Extra fine, 

Fine, 

Medium fine. 

Good medium. 

Medium, 

Common". 

Ordinary. 

29. What is meant by the term American 
cotton? 

American cotton is the term used to repre- 
sent practically all the varieties and classes of 
cotton grown in the United States except Sea 
Island cotton ; and while this is grown in the 
States it is considered as a separate class, and 
has a special standard of grading. American 
cotton includes a large number of varieties, 
but all may be placed under one of the follow- 
ing general classes.' 

Long Staple. Uplands, Gulf Cottons, Ordi- 
nary Uplands, and Texas Cottons. The length 
of the staple varies from 7/8 to i 1/6 inches in 
the Upland and Texas varieties, and from 
I 1/16 to I 1/4 inches in the Gulf cottons, and 
from I 1/4 to I 5/8 inches in the long stapled 
Upland. 

The class of yarn which can be made from 
the above will range from 10 to 30 in the 
Texas and Upland, while up to 50 may be 
made from the Gulf cottons and from 50 to 120 
from the Long-stapled Uplands, which in- 
clude such cottons as Allen-seed, Peelers, etc. 



38 COTTON MANUAL 

30. What is meant by Long-stapled Up- 
lands? Name a few leading varieties, and 
their principal characteristics? 




FIG. 2. OPEN BOLL OF LONG STAPLE UPLAND COTTON 

(ALLEN improved). 

(By permission U. S. Dept. Agriculture, from plates in Year Book, 1903.) 

Long-stapled Uplands is the name being 
used to represent cottons which have a 



COTTON MANUAL 



39 



longer and finer fibre than the ordinary Up- 
lands, which may be the result of careful selec- 
tion and cultivation, or the natural properties 
of the soil, together with favorable atnios- 




FIG. 2. UNOPENED BOLL OF LONG STAPLE UPLAND COTTON. 
(By permission IT. S. Dept. Agriculture, from plates in Year Book, 1903.; 

pheric conditions, or a combination of the 
above. 

One of the first and most common of this 
class is the well known "Peeler Cotton," 



40 COTTON MANUAL 

which had its origin in Warren Country, Mis- 
sissippi about 1864. This cotton is used exten- 
sively for hosiery yarns up to 50 or 60 counts, 
and has a staple of about i 1/4 inches. 

Another popular class is the "Allen cot- 
tons," which include three or four varieties; 
viz.. The Allen Long-staple, Allen Yellow 
Bloom, Allen Hybrid, and Allen Improved. 
(See Fig. 2.) 

The above cottons are the result of careful 
and scientific cultivation on the part of Mr. J. 
B. Allen of Port Gibson, Miss., and are now 
the most popular American varieties for fine 
spinning. Much of Allen cotton will range 
from I 1/4 to I 1/2 inches in staple, and is ex- 
ceptionally white and silky, with reasonable 
amount of strength. This class of cotton is 
used in many mills for combed yarns up to 
120 filling, and about 70 or 80 warp. 

Another variety having general manufactur- 
ing characteristics much similar to the Allen 
cottons with the exception of uniformity, is 
known as Griffin cotton, and obtains its name 
from John Griffin of Greenville, Miss. 

There are several others of more or less im- 
portance, which, by name are scarcely known 
in the manufacturing centres, except under the 
general term of long-staple American. 

31. What is meant by "Gulf Cotton?" 

Gulf cotton is supposed to represent certain 
varieties grown in the vicinity of the Missis- 
sippi River, and shipped from ports on the Gulf 
of Mexico. 

Owing to the fact that a large amount of 



COTTON MANUAL 41 

this cotton is shipped from New Orleans, it is 
referred to in some cases as Orleans cotton. 

It will be in order at this point to state that 
the name may have some connection with the 
following taken from "Cotton Culture" by 
Lyman. 

"A number of planters in Southern Missis- 
sippi near where Rodney now stands, were 
amongst the first, if not the first, to pay at- 
tention to the improvement of cotton seed. 
They produced an excellent quality which was 
much in demand in the South. Their bags 
were marked 'Petit Gulf,' the name of a small 
shipping point on the river where an eddy in 
the stream made a little bay or gulf. From 
this circumstance the seed was universally 
known as 'Petit Gulf or 'Gulf-seed,' and under 
that name has been extensively used in the 
South." 

It may be safely stated that Gulf Cotton 
represents a medium between the long-stapled 
and ordinary Uplands ; being the natural prod- 
uct of the alluvial delta region of the States of 
Mississippi and Louisiana, which through the 
richness of the soil will produce a cotton with 
I i/8 to I 1/4 inch fibre, with scarcely any 
artificial fertilization. 

"Benders" cotton, which receives its name 
from being cultivated around the bends of the 
Mississippi River, is one of the better classes 
of Gulf Cotton. 

32. What is meant by "Upland Cotton" 
and "Texas Cotton?" 

The above name is given to one of th^ 



42 COTTON MANUAL 

American varieties, grown on the rising lands 
of Virginia, North and South Carolina, 
Georgia, Alabama, and in some sections of 
Tennessee and Arkansas. 

It is a soft, fairly clean cotton of good com- 
mercial value, and can be made into good fill- 
ing yarn up to 40's or 45's, but when made 
into warp yarn it is most suitable for numbers 
up to 30. 

The length of the fibre will vary from 7/8 to 
I 1/16 inches. 

This class of cotton represents the bulk of 
the American crop, and is fairly clean, while 
it is adapted for a wide range of domestic 
uses, which makes it a good commercial 
cotton. 

Texas cotton refers to cotton grown in the 
State of Texas, and while shorter than the Up- 
lands as described above, its general character- 
istics are somewhat similar, except that about 
30 yarn is as high as it will produce with sat- 
isfaction, 

33. Into how many grades may American 
Cotton be classified; which grade is the basis 
for quotations, and how do the rest vary? 

American Cotton may be classified into the 
following: 

Full, Half, and Quarter Grades. 

Full Grades. Half Grades. Quarter Grades. 

Fair 

Barely Fair 
Strict Middling Fair 

Fully Middling Fair 
lyfiddling F3,ir 



COTTON MANUAL 



43 



Good Middling 
Middling 

Low Middling 

Good Ordinary 
Ordinary 



Barely Middling Fair 
Strict Good Middling 

Fully Good Middling 



Strict Middling 



Barely Good Middling 
P'ully Middling 



Barely Middling 
Strict Low Middling 

Fully Low Middling 

Barely Low Middling 
Strict Good Ordinary 

Fully Cxood' Ordinary 

Barely Good Ordinary 
Strict Ordinary 



In addition to the foregoing grades, a special 
grade is set upon cotton having what is known 
as "bloom" or "tinge," which indicates fibres 
having extra lustre ; but as a rule they are 
usually weaker than the ordinary staple, of the 
same variety. Stained cotton indicates cotton 
which has been stained by rain, sand, etc., and 
this also is quoted at a different price than the 
same grade of ordinary or regular cotton. See 
the following list : 

The New York contract calls for about loo 
bales of American cotton in the usual stfuare 
form (round bales not available), weighing not 
less than 49,50a pounds and not more than 
50,500 pounds. 

The quoted price is for Middling and the 
other grades are allowed for, on or off, as per 



44 COTTON MANUAL 

following table. A point equals i/iod of a 
cent. 

Fair 130 points on. 

Strict Middling F'air 113 '• " 

Middling Fair 96 " " 

Barely Middling Fair 79 " " 

Strict Good Middling 62 " 

Fully Good Middling 53 " " 

Good Middling 44 " " 

Barely Good Middling 33 " " 

Strict Middling 22 " " 

Fully Middling 11 " " 

Middling basis. 

Barely Middling 7 •' off. 

Strict Low Middling 14 " " 

Fully Low Middling 26 

Low Middling 38 

Barely Low Middling 55 •' " 

Strict Good Ordinary 72 " " 

Fully Good Ordinary 86 " " 

Good Ordinary roc " " 

Strict Good Middling, tinged 30 " on. 

Good Middling, tinged value of Middling. 

Strict Middling, tinged 6 points off. 

Middling, tinged 12 " " 

Strict Low Middling, tinged 34 " " 

Fully Middling, stained 42 " '' 

Middling, stained 50 " " 

Barely Middling, stained 78 " " 

Strict Low Middling stained 106 " 

Fully Low Middling, stained 128 •' " 

Low Middling, stained 1 50 '• " 

If warranted, allowances for extra staple are 
made,, varying from 1/16 to 1/4 cent per 
pound. 

34. What is meant by the terms "Spot," 
"Futures," and "C. I. F. & 6 per cent." as ap- 
plied to cotton? 

"Spot" cotton means cotton which is act- 



COTTON MANUAL 45 

ually on the market at time of purchase, and 
may be bought from broker's samples. 

"Futures" means cotton which may be 
bought for delivery at some future time, say 3 
or 4 months from day of purchase. This sys- 
tem is resorted to by many as a means of spec- 
ulation, although not less than 100 bales can 
be bought on this basis. 

"C. I. F. & 6 per cent." means that the seller 
must pay all "costs, insurance and freight" 
until cotton is received by purchaser in port of 
delivery, also that 6 per cent, is allowed for 
tare including bagging and ties. 

35. Upon what terms is "Spot" cotton sold 
in the United States? 

Cotton is sold in the United States by gross 
weight. 

The purchaser pays the bill usually within 
24 hours after delivery of cotton, which he is 
obliged to take within 10 days of purchase, or 
he can demand its delivery at any time within 
ro days of purchase. 

While no allowance is made for the bagging 
and ties (which on an average bale will repre- 
sent about 6 per cent., or from 24 to 28 lbs. loss 
in tare), there is a reduction made of from 1/2 
to I cent per lb. from standard price for all 
bales below 350 lbs. 

The above rebatement is given, owing to the 
fact that while the total weight of the bale 
may come below 350 lbs., the weight of bag- 
ging and ties will be practically the same as it 
would be for a 400 or 500 lb. bale, causing the 
per cent, of tare to be considerably greater. 



46 COTTON MANUAL 

Again the shippng rate is greater per lb. with 
light bales, as the number of bales forms the 
basis on which the price is quoted. 

36. Give a brief outline of the New York 
and New Orleans "Contract for Futures." 

The following is from A. B. Shepperson's 
"Cotton Facts." 

The New York Contract 

is for 50,000 lbs. (gross) in about 100 bales 
cotton, growth of the United States, to be de- 
livered from licensed warehouses in the port of 
New York during the month agreed. The de- 
livery to be at seller's option upon 5 days' 
notice to buyer, and from one warehouse. 

The cotton to be of any grade, from Good, 
Ordinary to Fair, inclusive, and if stained, not 
below Low Middling. 

Price to be for Middling, with additions or 
deductions for other grades according to the 
rates of the Cotton Exchange existing on the 
afternoon of the day previous to the date of 
the notice of delivery. Certificates of inspec- 
tion, classification, and weights issued by the 
"Inspector-in-Chief of Cotton" of New York 
Cotton Exchange, to be tendered with the cot- 
ton and made the basis of settlement. 

Payment to be made upon the dav of deliv- 
ery of warehouse receipts for the cotton. 

Either party to have the right to call for 
margin, as the variations of the market for like 
deliveries may warrant. An original' margin 
up to $5 per bale, to remain in Trust Company 
until settlement of the contract may be re- 



COTTON MANUAL 47 

quired by either party, provided demand 
therefor is made within 24 hours after the 
transaction. The party demanding original 
margin must also deposit an equal amount 
himself. All margins are required to be de- 
posited in a Trust Company or Bank. 

The New Orleans Contract 

differs from the New York Contract only in 
the following particulars, viz. : 

It is not required that the cotton should be 
classed and weighed under the auspices of the 
Cotton Exchange. 

When an original margin of $5 per bale has 
been deposited, the margins for variations in 
the market are paid directly to the party in 
whose favor the market turns. 

37. What position does Egypt hold as a 
cotton producing country? 

Egypt as regards quantity ranks about 
fourth ; being preceded by the United States, 
India and China. 

As regards quality it ranks next to the Sea 
Island varieties. 

The cultivation of cotton in Egypt is being 
extended considerable by means of irrigation 
works, but the delta of the Nile furnishes the 
bulk of the crop. 

The commercial value of Egyptian cotton is 
higher than the average American variety, 
owing to its special adaptability for hosiery 
and underwear, also for fine cotton goods. It 
is also fairly even running in length, and is 
one of the most economical cottons . used for 



48 COTTON MANUAL 

combed yarns, and ranks amongst the best for 
mercerizing and mixing with silk. 

38. Name some of the principal varieties of 
Egyptian cotton. 

It was formerly the custom to divide the 
Egyptian cotton crop into three general varie- 
ties, known as Gallini, Brown and White. The 
former was grown from Sea Island and re- 
sembled it in many ways. It is, however, 
being replaced by other varieties, and is now 
only cultivated in small quantities. 

The Brown variety has also undergone 
changes, and is now subdivided into several 
varieties, each varying in some particular char- 
acteristic from the other. 

The leading Egyptian varieties now being 
cultivated include : 

Mitafifi which is the controlling factor for 
the Egyptian market, and forms about 75 per 
cent, of the entire crop. It is of a rich yellow- 
ish brown color, long, fine and fairly strong, 
and is grown in the Delta of the Nile. 
A ciTTiv/r/-.TTivTT r General characteristics 
waw^TtV T J "^^^^' ^^^^ MITAFIFI, but 
A-R-RAQT ' "°^ ^° *^^^P brown, and not 

ABBASI ^ q^j^g g^ strong. 

A-DTATk ^ Shorter, fibre of lighter 

^^^^.^^ I brown, and not so strong as 

TIFTAWI <i ^j^g varieties previously 

,BAMIA t mentioned. 

Yannovitch and Taffiri are also varieties of 
Egyptian cotton which have excellent proper- 
ties, and may be classed next to Mitafifi. 

Egvptian cotton will range from i 1/4 to 



COTTON MANUAL 49 

I 1/2 inches, and may be spun into yarns up 
to i2o's. 

39. Name the grades of Egyptian cotton 
beginning with the best. 

Extra fine. 

Fine. 

Good. 

Fully Good Fair. 

Good Fair. 

Fair. 

Middling- Fair. 

Middling. 

40. What position does India hold as a cot- 
ton producing country; ist for quantity and 2d 
for quality? 

India ranks next to the United States as a 
cotton producing country so far as quantity is 
concerned, but in quality its product is in the 
lowest class. 

The general make up of Indian cotton is 
short, harsh, and dirty, but reasonably strong. 

The length of the staple scarcely averages 
one inch, and is made in yarns up to 25's, al- 
though the greater per cent, of the crop is only 
suitable for yarns from.5's to 15's. 

41. India's cotton producing territory is 
divided into sections. How many are there 
principally, and what is the character of the 
cotton from each? 

The principal sections are : 
Ganges Valley, Deccan, Western India, and 
Southern India. 



50 COTTON MANUAL 

The cotton from the Valley of the Ganges is 
possibly, though short stapled, the oldest cot- 
ton known to the manufacturing world; and, 
as formerly, is all practically used in the 
neighborhood of its cultivation. 

The cotton from the Deccan or Central 
India, is the best Indian cotton, and is the 
chief section for the cultivation of export cot- 
ton ; the staple is about 7/8 to i inch, and can 
be used for yarns up to 20's warp, and 30's 
filling. 

The cotton from Western India is about 
3/4 inch long, and will spin up to 15's. 

Southern India produces some of the best 
Indian cotton, comparing somewhat similar to 
those from the Deccan, so far as length and 
adaptability are concerned. 

Indian cotton generally, through all its 
varieties, is short and dirty; this is probably 
due to careless cultivation and poor ginning, 
together with the unfavorable climatic condi- 
tions. 

42. Give the name of a few Indian varieties 
with approximate length of fibres, and the 
counts of yarn for which they are adapted. 

Hingunghat, 7/8 to i in., dirty but strong; 
yarn to 30. 

Oomrawattee or Oomras, 7/8 in., dirty ; yarn 
to 25. 

Bhownuggar, 7/8 to i in., compares favor- 
ably with Hingunghat. 

Tinnevelly, 7/8 to i in., fairly clean and 
strong; yarn to 25. 



COTTON MANUAL 51 

Broach, 7/8 in., darker and a little cleaner 
than Hingunghat; tip to 28. 

Dollerah, 7/8 in., whitish but dirty and not 
very strong; up to 25. 

Comptah, 3/4 to 7/8 in., weak and dirty 
yarns up to 20. 

Dharwar, 3/4 in., cleaner than Comptah 
yarns up to 20. 

Scinde, 5/8 to 3/4 in., white and fairly clean 
yarns up to 12. 

Bengal, 5/8 in., harsh, dirty, fairly strong 
yarns up to 12. 

Cocoanada, 5/8 in., reddish brown color and 
weak; yarns up to 12. 

43. Name the grades into which Indian 
(E)ast) cotton may be classified. 

East Indian is graded as follows ; the order 
given representing from highest to lowest 
grade. 

Superfine. 

Fine. 

Fully Good. 

Good. 

Fully Good Fair. 

Good Fair. 

Fully Fair. 

44. Give a general description of the cotton 
grown in South America. 

The South A.merican cottons include the 
Brazilian and Peruvian varieties, which are 
the only ones of any importance, although 
there is a small quantity grown in the Argen- 



52 COTTON MANUAL 

tine Republic, and in British and French 
Guiana. 

The Brazilian cotton is usually even run- 
ning throughout its varieties; the fibre is 
harsh and wiry, but clean and strong; its 
length averages about i i/8 in. and will pro- 
duce good warp yarn up to 40's or 50's, and 
filling yarn up to 6o's, while the better classes 
may be used up to 70's. 

The following are amongst the leading 
varieties : 

Maranhams, Pernam, Pariaba, Ceara, Bahia, 
and Maceio. 

The Peruvian varieties are divided into three 
principal classes, viz. : 

Peruvian Sea Island, which has a long and 
fairly strong fibre, but not so silky and clean 
as Sea Island proper. The length of the fibre 
is about I 1/2 in. and will produce yarns up to 
lOo's. 

In addition to the above are Rough and 
Smooth Peruvian. These have approximately 
the same average length of staple, viz. : about 
I 1/4 in. and each is capable of being made 
into yarns up to 6o's or 70's. 

Rough Peruvian, however, is harsh and 
wiryy fairly strong, but very clean. There is 
over 20,000 bales used annually in the United 
States, of which (according to the eminent au- 
thority of A, B. Shepperson) not a single bale 
is used except for mixing with wool. 

"Rough Peruvian Cotton (so called, to dis- 
tinguish it from a fine grade of cotton grown 
in Peru, but which never comes to this coun- 
try), has a strong, rough, woolly, crinkly 



COTTON MANUAL 53 

staple, about i 3/8 to i 1/2 inches long. As 
it is of the 'tree cotton' variety (such as grows 
in Brazil), it is entirely free from sand or 
dust, and is usually very clean and well 
handled. The loss in carding does not exceed 
2 per cent., and the loss in spinning, owing to 
the length and strength of staple, is very 
trifling. It is called Vegetable wool,' and 
when carded its resemblance is so close and its 
characteristics so strikingly similar to wool, 
that it could readily be sold as wool, even to 
a dealer. When woven into goods along with 
wool the cotton fibres cannot be determined 
with any certainty except by using chemical 
tests. This cotton is sold exclusively to manu- 
facturers of woolen goods for the purpose of 
mixing with wool in the manufacture of un- 
derwear, hosiery and cloths which are sold by 
retail dealers as being made entirely of wool." 
Smooth Peruvian is about the same length, 
and can be spun into practically the same 
counts of yarn, but is softer, smoother and 
more pliable than Rough Peruvian. 

45. Name the grades into which Brazilian 
Cotton may be classified. 

Good Fair, Fair and Middling Fair are the 
most common grades, but a more complete 
list will include : 

Fine. 

Good. 

Good Fair. 

Fair. 

Middling Fair. 

Middling. 



54 COTTON MANUAL 

The above order represents highest to low- 
est grades. 

46. Give a brief description of the cotton 
grown in Mexico. 

Over one-half of the Mexican cotton crop is 
produced in the state of Coahuila and is prac- 
tically all used in Mexico. 

The general run of this cotton has a white, 
clean, and fairly strong and wiry fibre, with a 
staple of about one inch. It can be spun up 
to 30 warp, and when mixed with Uplands 
will produce a yarn having a little more 
strength than a yarn made entirely of Uplands. 

The average weight per bale is about the 
same as the standard American bale, viz., 500 
lbs. 

47, Is there much cotton grown in China, 
if so, where is it manufactured? 

The cotton production of China is estimated 
at about i 1/4 to i 1/2 million bales, and is all 
manufactured in the Chinese Empire and 
Japan. 

The cotton is white, clean, but harsh and 
wiry, and can be mixed with wool. The fibre 
while being reasonably strong is not long 
enough for fine yarns ; the lenglh of the staple 
may average about 3/4 of an inch. 

Cotton is also grown in Japan and Corea, 
and while it may be said to resemble the 
Chinese varieties, the exact amount cultivated 
is not known, but the entire crop is used in 
the above countries. 



COTTON MANUAL 55 

48. What is the cause of Asiatic cotton 
being of such poor quality generally? 

It is well known that the cotton grown in 
Asia is generally a short, coarse and low 
grade. ' The reason for this is attributed prin- 
cipally to the climate. For instance India is the 
most important cotton producing country in 
Asia, and its climate is so hot and dry that the 
plant does not receive the nourishment which 
it needs, and this together with unskilled, 
careless cultivation places Indian cotton 
amongst the poorest class. 

They are used for very coarse yarns, and 
also for mixing with waste from better classes 
of cotton. 

Other Asiatic countries may produce a little 
better cotton than India, but the general state- 
ment referring to careless cultivation applies 
more or less to all. 

49. What are the principal points to be ob- 
served in selecting cotton, and how would you 
proceed to judge a sample of cotton? 

AVhen it is necessary to produce a cotton 
yarn of certain characteristics, the selection of 
cotton should receive careful attention on the 
part of mill managers entrusted with the duty 
of purchasing the raw^ material. 

It is customary in many mills to employ 
"cotton samplers," whose duty is to examine 
samples from every bale, and if necessary, 
form groups of certain bales having special 
features, or report on bales falling belov\^ the 
grade or standard which the sample is sup- 
posed to represent. 



56 COTTON MANUAL 

In case of the latter, a rebate may sometimes 
be obtained, while in the case of the former 
the bales are used for special purposes. 

In addition to the price, the following points 
must be considered : 

1st. Length of staple. 

2. Grade or general appearance of cotton 
in respect to freedom from sand, leaf, seed, 
moisture, or other impurities which may in- 
crease the loss per cent, in working. 

3d. Strength and color of fibre. (The for- 
mer is more important in cotton intended for 
warp yarn, thread, lace, etc., than in cotton in- 
tended for filling or hosiery yarn. The color 
is not so important for goods which are to be 
dyed or printed.) 

4th. See if there is much variation in the 
samples, or whether they are even running in 
length, cleanliness, moisture, etc. 

When examining the samples (which are 
guaranteed to be a fair representation of the 
bale from which they have been taken) it is 
customary to first note the comparison in 
color; then to take the samples in turn and 
after slightly opening them, shake out as much 
sand, etc., as possible, to ascertain the loss 
from this source. To do this thoroughly, 
samples are sometimes passed through the 
pickers and cards ; the percentage being more 
reliable when found in this way. 

To determine the length of the staple, a 
number of fibres are gradually worked into a 
parallel condition, and afterwards a small tuft 
is extracted, and measured. This operation is 
performed by taking a handful of cotton, and 



COTTON MANUAL 57 

while holding it fairly firm with one hand, the 
tuft is broken by the other hand, and the loose 
fibres gently removed ; then a number of fibres 
are gripped by the fore finger and thumb, and 
drawn gradually out of the bulk. It requires 
considerable practice to perform the above 
rapidly, but an experienced sampler can almost 
tell at a glance the length of the staple from a 
small tuft of cotton drawn out in the above 
manner. 

With reference to the moisture, it may be 
mentioned that "testing ovens" are sometimes 
used to find the per cent, of moisture from 
small samples. This is done by subjecting the 
cotton to a radiated heat of about i8o deg. F. 
for one or two hours, and the per cent, is then 
calculated on the loss in weight. Another 
method is to break about 50 lbs. of cotton in 
small bunches, and after placing rt in a basket, 
or box with either perforated or lath sides, ex- 
pose same in a warm room for several days. 

It has been found that a certain amount of 
moisture is necessary for the proper manipula- 
tion of the fibre, and a standard of 8 1/2 per 
cent, is usually allowed. 

50. Name at least six of the world's im- 
portant markets outside of the United States. 

Excluding the markets of the United States 
the following will represent the most import- 
ant markets for raw cotton : 

Liverpool (England) supplies practically all 
the trade of the British Isles and also exports 
certain varieties of cotton to other countries. 

Bombay (India) is the leading market for 



58 COTTON MANUAL 

Indian cotton, and supplies a good proportion 
of the trade of that country. There are, how- 
ever, two other ports which may be taken into 
account when considering the distribution of 
Indian cotton, these are Calcutta in the Bengal 
Presidency, and Madras in the Madras Presi- 
dency. 

Havre (France) on the Seine, is the most 
important cotton market from which the man- 
ufacturers of France are supplied. 

Bremen (Germany) supplies the trade of 
that country which is chiefly for American and 
Indian cotton. 

Amsterdam supplies Holland. 

Genoa and Milan are the cities through 
which the Italian trade is supplied. 

51. Name some of the uses of cotton in ad- 
dition to cotton cloth. 

In addition to cloth, cotton may be used as 
a fibre for any of the following purposes : 

Sewing thread, lace, rope, hosiery, twine,' 
netting, webbing, batting, tape, bagging, and 
many other purposes of a kindred character. 

Again departures from the above line may 
be mentioned where the cotton fibre has been 
utilized. 

If cotton is immersed in Sulohuric Acid (3 
parts) and Nitric Acid (one part) then washed 
and dried, we obtain (pyroxylin) gun-cotton. 

Dissolve gun-cotton in ether, and we mav 
produce collodion. 

A mixture of collodion and potassium iodide 
when spread on glass and then dipped in a so- 



COTTON MANUAL 59 

lution of silver nitrate, produces the plates 
used for photography. 

Celluloid is made from g-un-cottoii and cam- 
phor. 

If cotton fibres are treated with concentrated 
Sulphuric Acid they swell and form a gelatin- 
ous mass, and an addition of water causes a 
precipitate to be formed called amyloid, which 
is used in making parchment. 

52. Is the fibre the only portion of the cot- 
ton plant which can be used for commercial 
purposes? 

The fibre is not the only portion of the plant 
which may be used as the following will show 
the importance of other portions of the plant : 

In the first place the seeds must be used for 
replanting, but as only a small proportion are 
necessary for this purpose, the remainder are 
used for producing cotton seed oil, and cotton 
seed meal. 

The former is used for soap, miner's oil, 
cottolene, oleomargarine, and as a substitute 
for olive oil when refined, and in the crude 
state is used for dyeing. 

The latter, viz. : cotton seed meal is used as 
cattle food or as fertilizer. 

The following represents the approximate 
product of one ton of cotton seeds : 

1,090 lbs. of meal or meat and 890 lbs. of 
hulls. The meat will yield about 300 lbs. of 
oil and 790 lbs. of cake. 

There will also be about 20 lbs. of short 
fibres known as linters taken from the seeds. 



60 COTTON MANUAL 

The roots and bark are now being used for 
medical purposes. 

53. When the cotton is picked from the 
plant the fibres are connected to the seeds; 
what would be the proportion of seed to fibre 
in 100 lbs. of "seed cotton?" 

An approximate proportion would be 66 
lbs. of seed and the remainder would represent 
fibre ; as the seed usually equals about 2/3 of 
the total weight of "seed cotton." The latter 
is the name given to cotton as picked from 
the plant. 

54, Is the cotton subjected to any mechan- 
ical treatment before being baled; if so, what 
is the object of the process? 

As previously stated in 53, seed cotton is 
composed of about 2/3 seed ; and as the fibres 
are secured to these at one end, it becomes 
necessary to separate them before the cotton 
can be worked. 

The operation of separating them is known 
as Ginning, and the machine is known as 

The Cotton Gin. 

There are several reasons for performing the 
above before the cotton is baled, one of the 
principal ones being, that if the bales were 
pressed before the seeds were extracted, the oil 
from the seed would stain the fibres, and re- 
duce their commercial value ; again, the oil 
would be wasted, the seeds ruined, and the 
freight would be excessive, while the seeds 



COTTON MANUAL 6i 

would finally have to be returned to the farm- 
ers to sow for the next crop. 

The invention of the cotton gin by Eli 
Whitney, in 1793, completely revolutionized 
the cotton industry of the United States. 

During that year the total exports were but 
975 bales. The year following the invention 
the total exports were 3,200 bales. As stated 
in the Census report this increase so fright- 
ened one of the Southern planters that he ex- 
claimed: 

"I have done w^ith the cultivation of cotton ; 
there is enough in that gin-house to make 
stockings for all the people of America." 

55. What is the most universal method of 
ginning American cotton? Is the method a 
defective one or not? 

Practically the whole of the American cot- 
ton crop is ginned on what is known as the 
"saw^ gin" w^hich obtains its name from the 
fact that the fibres are torn from the seeds by 
a series of circular saws, having a portion of 
their circumference enter a box containing the 
seed cotton, and after gripping the fibres the 
teeth of the saws pass through a grid which is 
set to prevent the passage of the seeds, and 
the result is that the fibres are torn away from 
the seed. See Fig. 3. 

While this method is acknowledged to be 
defective, on account of the saws having a 
tendency to cut the fibres, its range of produc- 
tion causes it to be used in preference to other 
methods in which quantity is sacrificed for 
quality. 



62 



COTTON MANUAL 



The high speed at which some saw gins are 
run, and the saws being too sharp or rubbing 
against the grid, also tend to aggravate the in- 
jurious method. 

It will be in order to mention that no gin 




FIG. 3. SECTION OF SAW GIN. 



now in use can separate seed from fibre with- 
out the slightest injury to either; but, the one 
approaching nearest to these results, and 
maintaining production is the best. 



COTTON MANUAL 63 

56. Give a general description of the saw 
gin, and the passage of the cottoft through the 
machine. 

To assist in making the answer more clear, 
reference will be made to Fig. 3, which repre- 
sents the section of a gin built by the Eagle 
Gin Co. of Bridgewater, Mass. 

The cotton is fed to the machine at A, and 
falls onto the teeth of the saws D, which are 
projecting into the receptacle A, between the 
grate bars shown at E. The saws may be 10 
or 12 inches in diameter, and are threaded onto 
a cylinder which may accommodate from 40 to 
80 saws, usually advancing by sections of 5 
saws each. 

The saws revolve at from 300 to =:oo R. P. 
M. and are continually passing through the 
cotton in such a manner that the fibres are 
gripped by the teeth of the saws and are car- 
ried around with them, until the seeds to 
which they are attached come into contact 
with the grid E; this arrests the seeds and 
causes the fibres to be torn away by the saws 
and carried around until they are removed by 
the revolving brush J; which is set so that 
the bristles touch the fibres, and owing to the 
surface speed being higher than that of the 
saws, the fibres are taken off the saws. 

The brush J will also create an air current 
sufficient to throw the cotton into the trunk 
which commences at K, although an additional 
air current is usually introduced to assist in 
this. • 

AVhen a number of gins are placed together 
they are termed a battery, and the cotton from 



64 COTTON MANUAL 

all is deposited at some convenient place for 
baling, by means of flues and fans. 

After the seeds have been stripped of the 
fibre, they slide or roll out of the box at M, 
and fall either into bags, or boxes placed to 
receive them. 

The receptacle A together v^^ith the grate E 
and the cover B are practically one 15ox which 
is hinged to the rest of the machine at I, and 
can be raised by lifting the handle F. This is 
used to prevent fire or accident when any hard 
substance falls into contact with the saws; as 
the raising of the handle F will lift the cotton 
out of contact with the saws. 

The space through which the seeds are al- 
lowed to fall can be adjusted by means of the 
plate M which is in turn regulated by the ad- 
justing screw N. 

Feeders are also applied to give a uniform 
feed to the gin, and so arranged that they can 
be changed or stopped independently. The 
cost of a saw gin is from $3.00 to $4.00 per 
saw, with an additional $70 for feeder. The 
floor space required is about 7 x 10 feet; when 
using feeder and condenser with a 70 saw gin, 
the production will be about 500 lbs. or i bale 
per hour. 

57. What is the average production of the 
Saw Gin? 

The production of a saw gin is usually esti- 
mated at about 11 lbs. per saw per hour; this 
will represent about 4,400 lbs. from a 40 saw 
gin running 10 hours. 

A saw gin may contain any number of saws 



COTTON MANUAL 65 

up to 80; although 50 to 70 will possibly rep- 
resent the average range of sizes, and an aver- 
age of I bale per hour will represent the ap- 
proximate production. 

58. Has any attempt been made to furnish 
a substitute for the saw gin? 

Yes. It has been the aim of inventors for 
some time to place a gin on the market which 
will produce the same amount as the saw gin 
without the attendant evils. As a result there 
are several gins now on the market each dif- 
fering in some detail from the others. 

The name under which almost all the rivals 
of the "Saw gin" are classed, is "Roller Gins;" 
indicating the essential feature of the machine 
by which the separation of the fibres and seeds 
is effected. 

The saw gin, however, has the advantage of 
a large production, and therefore for handling 
the large American cotton crop, no other gin 
has yet been able to supersede it. 

59. It is claimed that American cotton has 
deteriorated in its commercial value ; what are 
the causes to which this is attributed? 

The deterioration of American cotton is at- 
tributed generally to poor ginning and baling, 
and careless handling and preparation for the 
market. 

It has been stated by one authority, viz., 
Mr. Edward Atkinson, that about $30,000,000 
are wasted in the South every year on account 
of unskilled manipulation of the cotton in its 
earlier stages. 



66 COTTON MANUAL 

The saw gin is also held accountable for a 
large amount of damage done to the American 
cotton crop. 

Another important point in this problem is 
the fact that the bulk of the American crop is 
cultivated on small farms, and as the cotton 
plant yields to soil conditions so readily, it is 
assumed that the cotton from these farms can- 
not always be alike, although they may be sold 
and even classed as one lot. 

A certain amount of care should also be ex- 
ercised in picking the cotton from the plant, 
but owing to the fact that cotton pickers are 
paid bv weight, it is not surprising to find 
them throwing pieces of boll, leaf and other 
impurities into the cotton to add weight. 

At the ginneries also, the artificial adultera- 
tion has been practiced to the extent of add- 
ing sand, water, etc., to increase the weight of 
the bale. 

It must not be concluded from the above 
that any cotton is absolutely free from seed, 
leaf, stringy or short fibre,. because the most 
careful cotton pickers are not perfect and it 
is an easy matter to grasp occasionally a de- 
cayed leaf with the cotton. This will crumble 
into small pieces and after once becoming 
mixed amongst the fibres is difficult to get rid 
of afterwards. 

Again there is always a certain amount of 
immature fibre in all cotton, and they are So 
weak that they break into pieces before they 
can be separated from the seed even with the 
most delicate ginning. 

Baling the cotton does not materially dam- 



COTTON MANUAL 67 

age the cotton as a fibre, but the poor covering 
used and rough handling results in the cotton 
becoming "country damaged." 

60. Name some of the principal defects 
found in cotton on its arrival at the Northern 
or European cotton mills. 

In addition to the dilapidated condition of 
the bale itself there are several defects may be 
found in cotton such as unripe fibres, sand, 
leaf and stalk, and fibres which have been 
stained while on the plant. 

The cause of these may be given briefly as 
follows : 

Unripe fibres may be the result of unfavor- 
able weather conditions during cultivation, 
neglect during cultivation, and poor soil. 

Leaf, sand, stalk, etc., are the result of care- 
lessness during picking, or by wind and sand 
storms passing during the period when the 
bolls are open. 

It may be mentioned that it has been a 
source of wilful adulteration to insert a pailful 
of sand or water into the centre of the bale at 
the ginnery, in order to nroduce weight. 

With reference to the stained fibres, this 
may be from the presence of coloring matter 
in some foreign substance such as seeds, pods, 
etc., which is crushed out while ginning, and 
stains the surrounding fibres. Another cause 
of stain is by allowing cotton to stay on the 
open pod during rainy weather, and if this is 
immediately after a few hot dry days, the cot- 
ton will become stained by what is termed 
"Rust." 



68 COTTON MANUAL 

6i. What was the method of packing cot- 
ton prior to baling? 

Prior to baling it was customary to pack the 
cotton in bags. These were filled by being 
suspended beneath a hole in the floor of the 
gin house, and the cotton dropped into it until 
almost full, then the bag was cut loose and the 
top sewed up. 

62. State briefly the weight and dimensions 
of American Cotton Bales. 

The weight of American Cotton Bales is 
supposed to be 500 lbs. and its dimensions 54 
X 27 X 16 inches. 

The above, however, vary greatly, some 
bales being as light as 350 lbs. while others 
will reach 750 lbs. 

The bagging and "ties" or "hoops" usually 
amount to 20 or 25 lbs. 

The light bales are an objectionable feature 
as shipping rates are quoted on the number of 
bales and if light bales are sent the 'price per 
pound is greater than a shipment of heavy 
bales. Again, owing to the uncertainty at- 
tached to the correct weighing of small bales 
and also to discourage the making of small 
bales, an allowance of one dollar per bale is 
allowed in favor of the buyer. 

63. How do foreign bales compare with 
American bales in weight and general make 
up? 

The American bale, speaking generally, is 
the worst looking bale which arrives in the 
mills of countries outside the United States, 



COTTON MANUAL 



69 



while its condition on its arrival at the north- 
ern mills could be considerably improved. 

The Egyptian bale is shorter, but is held 
by more ties than the American bale. The 
bagging is better and the cotton is well 
packed. 

The Indian bale is in general appearance 
somewhat similar to the Egyptian bale, but 
instead of having a number of separate ties it 
is held by one spiral tie. 

The Brazilian bales are lighter than almost 
all others except the Peruvian. This may be 
accounted for by the method of handling the 
cotton in South America, between the farmer 
and the merchant. 



Kind 
of Cotton. 



American. . 
American. . . 
American . . . 
Egyptian . . . 
Indian and 
Asiatic . . . 
Brazilian . . . 
Mexican . . . 
Peruvian . . . 



Style of Bale. 


Dimensions 
Bale. 


Of 


Weig^ht ol 
Bale. 


" Uncompressed " or 
"Gin Bale" 


SS'x40-x30" 




about 500 lbs. 


" Compressed " or 
"Standard" 


S4"x27"xi6" 




" soo " 


"DedrickBalc" 


24"XIS"X2S" 




" 2^0 " 


"Round-Lap Bale" 
"Lowrv Bale" 


35" lonsir,23' 


dia. 


" 280 " 


36' lone-, iS 

S0"X30' X20" 


dia. 


" 250 " 


"Compressed" 




" 730 " 


"Compressed" 


5o"x2o"xi6" 




" 400 " 


"Compressed" 


So"x2o"xi6" 




" 250 " 


"Compressed" 


S3"x33;;x46;; 




" SOO " 




40 X25 X20 







THE BALING OF AMERICAN COTTON. 



In addition to the answers given to ques- 
tions 62 and 63, it has been considered advis- 
able to include the following article on the 
above subject. 

Considerable interest has been taken re- 
cently in connection with the better market- 
ing of the American cotton crop, and as the 
matter concerns both manufacturers and plant- 
ers a satisfactory solution is still pending. 

Manufacturers, especially abroad, are desir- 
ous of obtaining the American bale in better 
condition so far as the covering and binding 
are concerned, with a view of preventing loss 
of fibre, and also tp obtain as compact a bale 
as possible to reduce cost on freight. 

Planters are interested because they are 
looking for the cheapest method of marketing 
their cotton. 

Several remedies are now before them in the 
shape of either cylindrical bales or an im- 
proved uniform square bale. 

The most prominent defects are : first, the 
large variation of weight in the square bales, 
although the size may be practically the same ; 
second, the coarse bagging or burlap, and the 
ties as used at present, do not protect the cot- 
ton sufficiently from becoming dirtied, lost, or 
in some cases stolen, as the rough handling 
to which it is subjected has a tendency to tear 
the covering. 

In the first instance, variations of almost 300 
lbs, have been known to exist in the weight 



COTTON MANUAL 71 

of square bales when delivered to the mill. 
This is also the case with bales apparently 
the same dimensions. If then the bales were 
packed in a form which will give the same 
density to the cotton and that be a standard 
say of 40 lbs. per cubic foot, it follows that 
the capacity of steamboats, or freig-ht cars 
could be more fully utilized. This causes light 
bales to be objectionable, because the shipoing 
rates are based on price per bale ; therefore, 
if light bales are made, the shipping rate per 
pound will be greater than a shipment of the 
same number of heavier bales. 

The above is partly remedied by the intro- 
duction of the snuare bale of uniform size and 
weight, which is now advocated by those who 
desire to improve the bale, but at the same 
time retain its shape, except that it will be 
reduced to 54 x 24 x 16 inches instead of 54 x 
27 X 16 inches, and better covering used. 

This method, however, will be neutralized 
considerably if no change is made in handling 
the bales when shipping. For instance, it is 
common practice to force the bales into the 
hold of the vessel by means of powerful 
screws : and as a result when they are to be 
unloaded the hooks have a tendencv to tear 
the covering, thus wasting the cotton besides 
exposing the cotton to dirt, theft, and at times 
completely destroying the marks used for 
identification. This would as at present con- 
cern the American manufacturer more than 
the European, as an allowance is made to the 
latter for loss in weight, etc. 

Another point in reference to the 54 x 24 



72 COTTON MANUAL 

uniform square bale, is that the planters are 
not very favorably impressed with the change 
for the following- reason : 

It is claimed that this bale -jviH not contain 
as much cotton as the old style, by about 20 
per cent. ; therefore, assuming a farmer to have 
enough cotton to make say 10 bales of the old 
style, it would be necessary to make say 12 
bales of the new style, costing the farmer al- 
most $2.50 more to market the cotton in new 
bales than would be the case with the old 
ones, and at the same time obtain no return in 
the shape of better price for the cotton. 

In the United States there are several forms 
in which the cotton can be received at the mill, 
some of which will be briefly referred to. 

In the Southern States there are many mills 
which have a ginnery as part of their equip- 
ment, and after ginning, the cotton is conveyed 
to the mixing or feeding room of the mill. 
This saves the expense of bagging and ties, 
and the baling process. 

Another method of receiving the cotton in 
the South generally, is in the form of a bale 
known as the "Gin bale." This is made at 
the gin and while its dimensions may vary 
considerably, a fair average is given as 30 x 40 
X 58 inches, weighing about 12 lbs. per cubic 
foot; this bale is also known as the "Uncom- 
pressed Bale" as the only packing which it re- 
ceives is at the ginnery by means of a "Screw" 
or "Hydraulic" press operating in a box which 
is usually situated at the end of a trunk or 
tube through which the cotton passes after 
leaving the gin proper. The box is con- 



COTTON MANUAL 73 

structed of wood rails generally, and the bag- 
ging is placed into position by the operator 
by lowering the sides of the box before the 
cotton is admitted. 

AAHien cotton is to be shipped a considerable 
distance the "Gin bale" is "compressed" by 
means of a powerful press reducing the dimen- 
sions to as near the standard as possible, viz. : 
54 X 27 X 16 in. with a density of about 22 
lbs. per cubic foot. 

Both the "Gin bale" and "Compress bale" 
are^usually covered with open mesh jute bag- 
ging, held in place by about 7 steel or iron 
bands about one inch wide, and secured by 
metal buckles. The covering and fastenings 
are known as the "bagging and ties" and on 
an ordinary American bale may weigh about 
25 lbs. 

The Round Lap Bale. 

The above bale is made by the American 
Cotton Companv and is a cylindrical bale, 
about 35 inches long, and 22 inches diam., 
being packed to about 37 lbs. per cubic foot. 
A bale weighing about 270 to 290 lbs. 

This bale is formed by winding a contin- 
uous sheet (about 2 lbs. per yard) of cotton 
into a roll or lap, and while being formed it is 
subjected to the action of two powerful rolls 
which press it so firmly that no ties are used, 
and practically a self contained bale is pro- 
duced. • 

Just before the bale is taken from the press 
a closely woven burlap covering is wrapped 
aroimd it by being fed to the oress during the 



74 COTTON MANUAL 

last revolution. This wraps the covering per- 
fectly tight and the edges are sewn so that the 
entire bale is enclosed. 

Below are a few of the advantages claimed 
for the "Round Lap Bale." 

1st. A saving of covering, equal to almost 
50 per cent. 

2d. Saves the "compressing" charges. 

Various local charges eliminated by the new 
bale aggregate at least 50 cents, and compress- 
ing averages another 50 cents. There is a 
large saving in transportation expense due to 
the fact that round lap bales, shipped through 
from gin houses, load to the full weight ca- 
pacity of freight cars, instead of to about one- 
fourth the weight capacity, as in the case of 
uncompressed, and about one-half the weight 
capacity, as in the case of compressed square 
bales. There is another saving in fire insur- 
ance, due to the non-combustibility of the 
round bale. If for export, there is a saving at 
the dock in the cost of loading, round lap bales 
being easily handled and not needing to be 
"screwed" into the holds of vessels, which 
third compression costs shippers of square cot- 
ton from 25 to 40 cents per bale. There is a 
further saving in ocean freights and marine in- 
surance charges owing again to the increased 
loading capacity of the bales, their lessened 
fire risk, and immunitv from "country dam- 

Another form of cylindrical cotton bale is 
made by the Planters Compress Co. and is 
known as the "Lowry Bale." 

This obtains its name from the Lowry press, 



COTTON MANUAL 75 

on which the bale is formed. It is about 36 
inches long-, and 18 inches diameter. It is 
packed by feeding the cotton through slots at 
the top of the press. The bale is built end- 
wise, and pressed to a density of about 47 lbs. 
per cubic foot; a full bale weighing about 250 
lbs. . 

The latest method of securing the cotton in 
this bale is by passing two steel bands around 
the bale lengthwise, and fastening them by 
buckles, then a closely woven covering of bur- 
lap is drawn over the bale and tied at the end 
by a draw string, which causes a small portion 
of the cotton to be exposed at one end. 

The floor space occupied by this press is 
about 10 X 6 ft. 



COTTON MIXING. 



After the cotton arrives at the mill, it is cus- 
tomary to open up a number of bales and after 
pulling the cotton from its matted condition 
into comparatively small bunches, it is piled 
up into a stack and allowed to stand for a few 
days before being passed through the various 
processes of manufacture. 

While the bales thus opened may be either 
of the same class, or of different classes, the 
operation is known as Mixing. 

Cotton may be mixed in the mill for several 
reasons, and the following may be classed 
amongst the most important: 

1st. To preserve the fibre by allowing the 
cotton to stand in a loose condition for several 
days, thus allowing it to expand and to be 
opened more easily in the cleaning processes. 

2d. To allow any excess moisture to evapo- 
rate before passing it through the various ma- 
chines. 

3d. To permit a special quality of yarn to 
be obtained by mixing and blending different 
varieties of cotton. 

The first and second reasons are important 
from the fact that, owing to the large crop of 
cotton being collected from so many different 
sources (principally from small farms), and 
the cotton plant yielding so readily to the 
varying conditions of soil and climate, we find 
there is considerable variation sometimes ex- 
isting in cotton which is supposed to be of the 
same grade and staple. 



78 COTTON MANUAL 

Again in addition to this natural variation, 
there are others to be contended with, such as 
inefficient grading and handling, and artificial 
adulteration; the latter being resorted to at 
times in the form of sand and water, which is 
added in various quantities in order to produce 
weight. 

The third is of importance, as by resorting 
to judicious blending or mixing of different 
varieties or grades, a yarn of required quality 
for different purposes may be economically 
produced. For instance, in large mills if is 
the practice to employ a person specially qual- 
ified, or have the superintendent examine every 
bale, and subdivide the stock into lots which 
may be worked as such, into yarns of various 
counts for special purposes. 

There are certain points to be observed in 
mixing cotton, in order to obtain the best re- 
sults amongst which may be included the fol- 
lowing : 

The length of the staple (fibres), color, 
strength and general characteristics of the cot- 
ton, and the price. 

Referring to the length of the staple, it must 
be remembered that all cotton contains long 
and short fibres, but this variation is due to 
natural causes during growth, and it is the ob- 
ject of certain processes to separate the short 
and long fibres, and to eliminate the former. 
Thus a mixture of different varieties which are 
not of equal length as near as possible, is a 
practice which is detrimental to good and eco- 
nomical work. 

When the process of drawing is reached it 



COTTON MANUAL 79 

will be seen how necessary it is to have the 
fibres in a given sliver as nearly as possible 
one length. Unless this is the case the setting 
of the rolls causes considerable trouble, as 
they cannot be set to accommodate two differ- 
ent lengths of staple at the same time. In 
twisting, also, the short fibres, not having the 
same grip of the adjoining ones as those of 
greater length, are not properly twisted in, 
and the result is that ''cockled" and uneven 
yarn is produced. 

In addition to the length of the fibres,' a 
knowledge of the strength of different fibres 
will assist in selecting cotton for special pur- 
poses; for instance, cotton having a compara- 
tively strong fibre may sometimes be mixed 
with a weaker one in order to increase the 
strength of the yarn for warp^ while the 
weaker fibre could be used along for filling. It 
may be noted at this point that very harsh and 
wiry cotton would not work well with soft, 
pliable cotton, as the treatment adapted for 
one would not be suitable for the other; al- 
though, if the above characteristics were only 
present to a small degree afld not very promi- 
nent in each case, it might be possible to use 
such a mixing and increase the strength of the 
yarn. 

With reference to color, this point is not so 
important in yarns intended for prints, or 
where the finished product is to be dyed; but 
in fabrics either woven or knitted, where the 
natural color of the fibre is to be retained, it is 
essential that the mixing be composed of cot- 
ton as near as possible of one color. Other- 



f 



80 COTTON MANUAL 

wise the fabrics would have either a shaded, 
or striped effect. 

The most common method of making a mix- 
ing is to build the cotton up in the form of a 
stack which may be open, or enclosed in bins 
made with lattice sides so that air can circu- 
late through the cotton. 

If the cotton is mixed by hand, a quantity 
from each lot is spread over the floor of the 
bin, or space to be occupied by the stack. 
This is followed by another layer from a dif- 
ferent lot and so on until the stack has been 
formed. 

The size of the mixing will depend upon the 
size of the mill, and the circumstances under 
which it is to be made. Good results, how- 
ever, can be obtained by making a mixing 
large enough to supply the mill from 3 days to 
one week. 

In small mills it may be convenient to make 
the mixing in the same room as the picker ma- 
chinery, but where a very large mixing is nec- 
essary a room should be provided for this pur- 
pose, and is known as the "Mixing Room." 
« 

Mixing Machinery. 

In large mills it has become the practice to 
employ machinery to make the mixings in 
place of building stacks by hand. This is 
done with a view to mixing more thoroughly 
and reducing the labor cost. 

The machine used to assist in forming a 
mixing is known as a Bale-Breaker, or as is 
sometimes called a "cotton puller" on account 
of its action upon the cotton resembling 



COTTON MANUAL 



81 



greatly the operation of tearing the cotton into 
small bunches by hand. It is upon this point 
that better blending is claimed when the bale 
breaker is used ; because the cotton being in 
smaller pieces than when mixed by hand, per- 

BALE BREAKER 




mits the different varieties to amalgamate 
more thoroughly and the cotton laying in a 
more loose condition dries out to greater ad- 
vantage, thus giving a more even running 



82 COTTON MANUAL 

thread when passing through the mill (i. e., 
other conditions being favorable). 

Bale Breakers. 

The bale breaker shown in Fig. 4 consists of 
a feed apron of the lattice type, which is con- 
structed of a number of wood slats, attached 
to two endless belts or chains. The latter are 
supported by and driven at a regular rate by 
rolls placed at convenient distances apart; the 
whole arrangement forming a flexible feed 
table. Immediately in front of the feed apron 
or lattice are (from 2 to) 4 pairs of rolls which 
may be either fluted or crosscut and driven by 
an arrangement of gearing connecting each 
pair of rolls. The bottom rolls revolve in fixed 
bearings, while the top rolls revolve in mov- 
able bearings, but are usually kept in contact 
with the bottom rolls by spiral springs, so that 
when an extra large piece of cotton, or any 
very hard substance passes, the roll may yield, 
and so avoid damage. Thff speed of the vari- 
ous rolls from feed to delivery increases 
rapidly, and the effect is, that if four are used, 
the cotton is well opened before being deliv- 
ered. The extent to which the speed of the 
front roll is increased over the back roll is 
known as the "draft" of the machine, and this 
phrase is applied to all the processes of atten- 
uation occurring in the whole series of ma- 
chines, from this point through to the finished 
yarn. There is a divergence of opinion as to 
the correct draft of a bale breaker, but the ad- 
vantage lies with the adoption of a large one, 
in order to get the cotton into the best pos- 



COTTON MANUAL 



83 




Q:H: 



^t 





g 




H 








s 


^j®©; ; 






u-i 




«l !• 


o 


Q 


(L. 



84 COTTON MANUAL 

sible condition for opening, at the earliest 
stage. There are limitations to this procedure, 
and different cottons require different treat- 
ment ; but a draft of from 30 to 40 seems most 
suitable for practical purposes. 

It may be well at this point to briefly state 
that the meaning of "draft" as applied above, 
is the ratio between the surface speed of the 
feed roll and the surface speed of the delivery 
roll. 

For example, if the feed roll a, Fig. 5, is the 
same diameter as the delivery roll d, and a 
makes one revolution while d makes 30, the 
"draft" is said to be 30. 

Again, suppose a makes i (one) revolution, 

b 2 (two) revolutions, c 6 (six) revolutions 

and d 30 (thirty) revolutions in the same time, 

and all the rolls be the same diameter, the total 

draft would be 30, and this would be divided 

into the following intermediate drafts : 

Draft between a and b = 2 

Draft between b and c = 3 

Draft between c and d = 5 

The product of intermediate drafts equals 2 
X 3 X 5 := 30 total. 

It will be seen, however, from the above, 
that the action of the rolls, will by the time the 
cotton has passed through the machine, have 
pulled the cotton into comparatively small 
pieces. It will be noticed also, that this open- 
ing up of the mass of cotton is in accordance 
with the essential points to be observed in 
cotton manufacturing; viz.: to extract as much 
dirt, sand, leaf, etc., at the earliest stage pos- 
sible. In addition to the machine already de- 



COTTON MANUAL 



85 



scribed there are other arrangements of Bale 
Breaker two of which are shown in Figs. 6 




FIG. 6. SECTION OK PEDAL BALE BREAKER. 

and 7 ; the former is for working similar 
classes of cotton as the one shown in Figs. 4 




FIG. 7. SECTION OF PORCUPINE BALE BREAKER. 

and 5, viz.: long and medium staple; but, in 
place of having four pairs of rolls, it is con- 



86 COTTON MANUAL 

structed with one fluted pedal roll under 
which is placed a set of pedals, and three pairs 
of rolls weighted by strong spiral springs ; the 
top of the first and second pairs are made in 
sections with strong teeth and the bottom rolls 
and the third pair of rolls coarse fluted. 

By this arrangement an independent grip is 
obtained upon the cotton at several points in 
the width of the machine, and thus ensures a 
more positive opening of the sheet; which is 
usually taken in layers from the bale. 

Fig. 7 represents a section of a bale breaker 
built specially for short stapled cotton, and 
contains only two pairs of rolls, weighted and 
constructed in a similar manner as those in 
Fig. 6. It also contains a small porcupine 
beater about 14 inches in diameter. The teeth 
are hardened steel, and- are usually secured to 
discs, these in turn being threaded on a shaft. 

The production of the machines just de- 
scribed is from 70,000 to 90,000 lbs. per week, 
and requires about 2 horse power to drive. 

Owing to the heavy work performed by the 
bale breaker, the machine is built very strong. 
It is customary in some cases to make the rolls 
of a number of discs which are threaded on a 
shaft and bolted together, so that in case of a 
tooth being broken from any cause, the disc 
can be broken oflF and a new one added at the 
end. 

One method of making a mixing or number 
of mixings by the use of a bale breaker, is 
shown in Fig. 5, and represents a good method 
when the machine and the mixing are in the 
same room. 



COTTON MANUAL 87 

Referring to the sketch it will be noticed 
that three mixing bins are used to which the 
cotton is conveyed by aprons A, B, C, D and 
E connecting with the bale breaker, from 
which the cotton is delivered as previously de- 
scribed, in a somewhat loose condition onto 
the apron A situated near the floor in front of 
the machine; this apron takes the cotton and 
deposits in onto the upright apron B, then be- 
tween B and B', the cotton is carried almost to 
the top of the room. A close observation will 
show the apron B to be set lower than B' and 
this has a two fold object. In the first place 
it allows B to receive the cotton at the bottom, 
while it also allows B' to prevent the cotton 
falling back onto the machine, therefore caus- 
ing it to be delivered onto the apron C which 
is supported near the ceiling. 

When the mixing is to be made in bin E' the 
cotton is carried by C and delivered onto D, 
and this in turn delivers it onto E which drops 
it into the bin. 

If, however, a mixing is to be made in D', 
the apron E (by means of a handle and gear- 
ing) is caused to travel backwards; so that 
when D delivers the cotton to E, the latter 
carries it back between D and E and drops it 
into the bin D'. To make a mixing in C the 
same arrangement is provided- to reverse 
apron D, thus dropping the cotton between C 
and D into the bin C. 

Other arrangements of conveying cotton 
can be made, as no definite rule can be given 
for locating the mixing, and circumstances 



88 



COTTON MANUAL 




UOfC. 



COTTON MANUAL 89 

will not always permit the bale breaker to be 
in the same room as the mixing. 

If, however, the mixing should be in the 
room below the bale breaker, it would only be 
necessary to place a tube in the ceiling of the 
mixing room in such a position that the cotton 
could be delivered through the tube onto the 
apron C, from whence it could be distributed 
to anv of the other mixings. 




FIG. 9. SECTION OF HOPPER BALE BREAKER. 

In case of cylindrical bales being used, a bale 
breaker with a section somewhat similar to 
that shown in Fig. 7 is employed, except that 
when "round lap bales" are being treated, a 
creel is provided for holding 4 bales, which are 
unwound by means of a feed apron as shown 
in Fig. 8, and fed to the rolls of the bale 
breaker in a continuous sheet! 

A sectional view of one of the latest styles of 
bale breaker is shown in Fig. 9. 

The machine is constructed on the Auto- 



90 COTTON MANUAL 

matic feeding principle, and is meeting with 
considerable success and adoption. 

The following claims are made for it over 
the old style : 

1st. It opens the cotton better, without 
damage to the fibres. 

2d. The amount of opening required can 
be regulated by an adjustable stripping 
cylinder D, Fig. 9. 

3d. By opening the cotton better, a more 
uniform mixing can be obtained, while waste 
can also be mixed and become more evenly 
distributed throughout the mixing. 

4th. A large production ; this will depend 
upon the amount of opening required, but a 
bale can be opened in 5 or 6 minutes when 
necesary, giving a weekly output of from 
100,000 to 150,000 lbs. 

A general description of the machine will 
now be given, illustrating its action on the 
cotton. 

After the bales have been opened, large 
pieces ranging from 40 to 80 lbs. can be 
thrown into the bin, or hopper, Fig. 9, and 
by means of the apron B, which is continually 
moving in the direction shown by the arrow, 
the cotton is carried against the spiked apron 
C, which in turn receives the cotton, and by 
means of spikes inserted into the laths, the 
cotton is pulled into pieces and conveyed 
toward the spiked stripping roll D. This roll 
is adjustable, and according to the distance at 
which it is set from the apron, depends the 
amount of opening that the cotton receives, 
the greatest amount of opening being obtained 



COTTON MANUAL 91 

when this roll is at its closest point to the 
apron. 

An enlarg^ed section of the spiked apron is 
shown in Fig. lo; this is made extra strong, 
with the laths intersecting into each other in 
such a manner that no cotton can accumulate 
between them. 

The cotton which passes beneath the spiked 




FIG. lO., ENLARGED SECTION OF THE APRON C, SHOWN IN FIG. 9. 

roll D is removed from the apron by means of 
the beater E, which has 6 leather flaps acting 
in such a manner that the cotton is struck 
from the spiked apron and deposited upon the 
apron F, from which it may be delivered to 
any point desired by means of upright aprons, 
etc., as explained in connection with the pre- 
vious bale breakers. 



92 COTTON MANUAL 

In connection with this style of machine an 
arrang-ement is employed for conveying the 
dust away from the machine by placing tubes 
over the feed box, and drawing away the dust 
by means of a fan, and discharging it in the 
dust room or other convenient place. 

Fig. II represents an arrangement whereby 
the bale breaker may be situated in the same 
building as the cotton storage rooms, apart 
from the main mill, and by means of fans the 
cotton is drawn through a trunk and deposited 
at some convenient point in the main mill. 

The horse power required for these machines 
is from 2 1/2 to 3 I. H. P. 

The floor space required is about 9 1/2 x 7 
■feet. 

A¥hen mixing different grades of cotton a 
proportion must be obtained to determine the 
exact amount to take from each lot at differ- 
ent stages in the formation of the mixing, ' 

For instance, if we wish to make a m.ixing 
to contain 56 bales, and the following marks 
represent each lot ; viz. : 

32 bales marked W. W. S. 
16 bales marked S. G. 
8 bales marked Y. W., 

we may proceed as follows: 

Divide each lot by bales in smallest lot. 
Thus 32 H- 8 = 4 
16 H- 8 = 2 



Therefore if a bale breaker is being used, we 




93 



94 COTTON MANUAL 

may open 7 bales, feeding in either one of the 
following- orders, viz., 

1 from S. G. 

2 from W. W. S. 
I from Y. W. 

1 from S. G. 

2 from VV. W. S. 

or 
2 from W. W. S. 
I from S. G. 
I from W. W. S. 
I from Y. W. 
I from W. W. S. 
I from S. G. 

Repeating the above until all the bales are 
mixed. 

To find the per cent. o£ each kind in a mix- 
ing, apply the following: 

First, ascertain the total amount in the mix- 
ing; for instance taking the last example and 
assuming the bales to equal 500 lbs. net, we 
obtain a mixing of 28,000 lbs. 

Thus, 32 bales of W. W. S. x 500 = 16,000 lbs. 

16 bales of S. G. x 500 = 8,000 lbs. 

8 bales of Y. W. x 500 = 4,000 lbs. 



Total, 28,000 lbs. 

Then^ multiply weight of each lot by lOO^ 
and divide result by total weight of inixing. 



COTTON MANUAL 95 

57 1/7 per cent. 
S. G. = 8p^o^o_x_u).o — 28 4/7 per cent. 
Y. W. = Ao^o^Qjf^ifo = 142/7 per cent. 

Assuming the price of each lot to be as fol- 
lows, we may find the average price per pound 
of the mixing: 

W. W. S. — lie. per lb. 

S. G. =■ IOC. per lb. 

Y. W. = 8c. per lb. 

Then divide the total cost of the mixing by 

the total -weight. 

For example : 

16,000 lbs. of W. VV. S. at lie. = $1,760.00 
8,000 lbs. of S. G. at IOC. = 800.00 

4,000 lbs. of Y. W. at 8c. = 320.00 



Total cost, $2,880.00 

Then 288,000 cents divided by 28,000 lbs. =: 
10 2/7C. per lb. average price. 

Notes on the Management of the Mixing 
Room. 

1st. Always make your mixing as large as 
possible, as a more even running yarn will be 
obtained. 

2d. Keep the temperature of the mixing 
room about 75 deg. F., as this will be found to 
give the best results, owing to the fact that the 
fibres will retain a normal supply of moisture 
at this temperature. 

3d. When a mixing stack has been formed, 
always take the cotton from the side or breast 



96 COTTON MANUAL 

of the stack, as you will then take from each 
layer and not have the same tendency to feed 
the respective layers separately, which would 
partially destroy the object of the mixing. 

4th. It is advisable to have two mixings if 
convenient, as one can be made while the other 
is being used. 

5th. The size of the mixing must be gov- 
erned by circumstances, but provision should 
be made whenever possible for mixings to last 
from three days to one week. 

6th. Mixing can be accomplished at any of 
the following places : 

(a) Mixing Room . 

(b) Picker Room by feeding different 
kinds of laps on Intermediate, or on Finisher 
Pickers. 

(c) At the drawing frame. 



JUL 2 m? 



